Postgraduate Education

I

Introduction

Postgraduate Education, courses of study in colleges, universities, professional schools, and other postsecondary institutions offered after completion of an undergraduate curriculum. Specific programs of postgraduate education usually require a baccalaureate degree or its equivalent as a prerequisite for admission. Education beyond the undergraduate years is often directed toward preparation for entrance into a profession such as law, medicine, or dentistry, in which advanced training is necessary for recognition as a practitioner. Although some professions, such as engineering or teaching, require only a baccalaureate degree for entrance, further education is frequently needed for advancement. Postgraduate education may also represent the continuation of interests begun at the undergraduate level but not directed toward career goals.

II

History

Formal professional training in law and engineering originated in ancient times in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Medieval universities offered instruction in law, medicine, and theology. Beginning in the 16th century, great impetus was given to advanced technical and medical education as a result of scientific discoveries.

In colonial America most colleges functioned primarily as theological schools. Other professional training was accomplished through an apprenticeship system in which trainees worked under the supervision of accepted practitioners in such fields as law and medicine. Standards of quality in training varied widely, however, and it soon became obvious that more formal education was needed.

Medicine was first taught at the University of Pennsylvania in 1765 and at King's College (now Columbia University) in 1767. Legal education began in 1779 at the College of William and Mary; a permanent law faculty was instituted at the University of Maryland in 1816, followed by the establishment of Harvard Law School (1817). Other early examples of professional colleges are the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Science (1821) and the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery (1840). The first civilian engineering school was the Rensselaer School (1824; now Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute). By the mid-19th century professional education was being incorporated into the curricula of many colleges and universities.

---

---

III

Courses of Study

Postgraduate study ranges from programs emphasizing intensive training in a specific aspect of professional practice to degree programs of several years' duration, either in an academic discipline or a professional field. Many professions also require periodic postgraduate study in order to maintain certification for practice.

Graduate schools generally award master's degrees or doctorates to those who have satisfactorily completed prescribed courses of study. A year is usually required to obtain a master's degree, which demands the acquisition of a higher level of knowledge than is needed for a baccalaureate. The doctoral degree involves a longer period of study and requires participation in and summation of some type of original research, as well as written and oral examinations.

The demands for specific courses of postgraduate study change with the needs of society. In most developing nations, for example, professional training in engineering and the health sciences is in great demand. In the United States and Canada the number of persons applying to schools of medicine, law, and business management greatly increased during the 1970s. Preparation for a career in medicine represents the most intensive curriculum, as a medical degree requires at least four years beyond the baccalaureate, and entry into a medical specialty can require four or more additional years of study. Many other occupations are currently being upgraded to the status of professions, with accompanying increases in the amount of postgraduate education needed for entry and advancement.

IV

Current Trends

In the U.S., a growing number of college students are continuing their education with postgraduate study. This has led to an expansion of facilities in universities around the nation. Postgraduate recruitment comes from various sources. Some college graduates who went directly into employment find it desirable to return to graduate schools for advanced training. A further trend has been to open professional training to minority groups that have historically been excluded because their access to prerequisite study has been restricted.

An ever-increasing number of women are now students in higher education programs throughout the world. Traditionally, many professions, including engineering, law, and medicine, were dominated by men. Women are now demanding and acquiring equal access to the postgraduate education necessary for entry into all professions. This trend is likely to continue as political, economic, and social barriers to equal opportunity for women are removed.

As per capita income increases in a society, the demand for professional training in technical and human services also increases. Foreign aid from developed nations and educational programs sponsored by the United Nations have done much to support the expansion of postgraduate education in developing countries. Many nations now include plans for the development of postgraduate studies as part of their own systems of higher education rather than supporting professional training abroad for citizens who may or may not return to their own countries.

See also Colleges and Universities.