War of 1812

I

Introduction

War of 1812, conflict between the United States and Britain that began in 1812 and lasted until early 1815. President James Madison requested a declaration of war to protect American ships on the high seas and to stop the British from impressing or seizing U.S. sailors. U.S. ships were being stopped and searched by both Great Britain and France, who were fighting each other in Europe. President Madison also wanted to prevent Britain from forming alliances with Native Americans on the American frontier. His decision was influenced by Americans in the West and South, who hoped to expand the United States by seizing control of both Canada and Florida. Critics called the War of 1812 “Mr. Madison’s War,” but others saw it as a “second war of independence,” an opportunity for Americans to defend their freedom and honor in the face of European disrespect. Neither Britain nor the United States was particularly well prepared to fight this war, and the conflict eventually ended in a stalemate.

II

Causes of the War

France and Britain, Europe’s two most powerful nations, had battled almost continuously since 1793, and their warfare directly affected American trade. Hostilities began during the French Revolution (1789-1799) when England joined other European nations in an unsuccessful attempt to restore the French monarchy, and then continued as Britain led the efforts to stop French expansion under Napoleon I. American presidents from Washington to Madison tried to keep the United States impartial during these conflicts, but both France and Britain flagrantly disregarded the rights of neutral countries.

For the Americans, the greatest irritant was Britain’s practice of impressment, or the seizure of American seamen for service in the British navy. The British government claimed that it only seized subjects of the Crown who sailed under the American flag to avoid wartime service in their own navy. In fact, the British seized not only their own deserters, but also impressed a sizeable number of United States citizens—estimates suggest 6000 or more.

Public outrage over the issue of impressment grew increasingly vocal after an incident between the American naval frigate Chesapeake and a British vessel, the Leopard. In June 1807 the Leopard approached the Chesapeake only a few miles off the American coast and demanded to search the ship for British deserters. The Chesapeake’s commander, James Barron, refused, and the Leopard opened fire. A number of American sailors were killed or wounded during the attack, and the Chesapeake surrendered. The British then sent a party aboard and dragged four crewmen from the vessel. After the incident, Jefferson ordered British warships to leave American waters and demanded an end to the practice of impressment. The British did make some apologies and restitution for the Chesapeake-Leopard incident, but continued to claim the right to seize American ships and inspect them for deserters.

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A

Economic Losses

Although impressment aroused the most resentment, the United States also suffered serious financial losses during these years of European warfare. The United States had to continue commercial relations with both France and Britain in order to remain prosperous, yet an American ship trading with either one of the two nations could be seized by the other. To hurt England’s economy, Napoleon had initiated the Continental System, a series of blockades in which the French confiscated vessels and cargoes in European ports if they had first stopped in Britain. The British government retaliated by issuing orders to blockade the coastlines of Napoleon’s empire and seize vessels bound for Europe that did not first call at a British port. Neither power had sufficient naval forces to close every major harbor, so the blockades were mainly used to capture ships belonging to neutrals like the United States that were rather weak militarily. Together, these warring nations seized nearly 1500 American vessels between 1803 and 1812. Because the British dominated the seas after they defeated the French at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, they stopped more ships than the French.

President Thomas Jefferson initially attempted to win respect for American neutrality by an economic boycott, a policy that banned trade with Europe. At Jefferson’s urging the Congress of the United States passed the Embargo Act of 1807, prohibiting virtually all U.S. commerce with European nations. Additional measures in 1808 and 1809 also restricted overland trade with British and Spanish possessions in Canada and Florida. This legislation failed to stop the aggressive actions of either France or Britain, but it did seriously harm the American economy. Consequently, Congress replaced it in 1809 with the Non-Intercourse Act, which forbade trade only with France and Britain. This measure was also overturned in 1810 by Macon's Bill No. 2, which reopened American commerce with all nations.

These trade restrictions were unpopular in the United States. Despite the repeated loss of both ships and seamen, Americans differed widely in their views on how to stop British harassment. British and French aggression hurt New England more directly than any other section of the country, but its merchants did not want to go to war with the British. Britain was the region's most important trading partner, and the profits from one successful commercial venture far offset the financial hardships resulting from the seizure of a cargo-laden ship or members of its crew.

B

The War Hawks

The strongest agitation for war came from the frontier regions of the United States. Western and southern representatives in Congress, most notably Henry Clay of Kentucky and John Caldwell Calhoun of South Carolina, led a pro-war faction that became known as the War Hawks. They believed that British officers from Canada were encouraging Native American peoples to rebel against the United States, a charge that may have had some foundation. For 20 years, frontiersmen had fought interior tribes with little help from the federal government. The War Hawks now felt they could enlist federal aid against Native Americans and their British allies by supporting a war to stop British interference with American trade on the seas.

In addition, the War Hawks welcomed the prospect of acquiring more land. Americans had always wanted Canada, for possession of this vast area would increase the number of potential western states in the Union and give the West greater power in Congress. Southerners, too, wanted more territory and looked longingly at Spanish-held Florida. Because Florida depended on British protection, the United States could seize this desirable territory in a war with Great Britain.

III

The Opposing Forces