Ship

H

Caravel

Fishing vessels called caravels first appeared in Spain and Portugal in the 13th century. These small, seaworthy sailing ships proved so agile and reliable that almost every European seafaring nation had adopted them by the end of the 15th century. Caravels carried cargo of all kinds throughout the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Indian oceans and became a favorite of Portuguese and Spanish explorers.

Caravels were carvel-built—that is, constructed frame-first and covered with planks fitted flush to one another. They carried three or even four masts with lateen sails. The ships sailed into the wind well, were fast, and had a shallow draft that made them suitable for coastal as well as ocean travel. Caravels averaged a manageable 23 m (75 ft) in length and could be rowed if necessary.

During the 15th and 16th centuries, hundreds of caravels sailed along the west coast of Africa and to the Americas. In the early to mid-15th century, Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal sponsored voyages along the African coast that relied upon caravels. Famous explorer Christopher Columbus sailed caravels on his voyages of exploration under the flag of Spain in 1492. He rerigged the Niña, his favorite, with square sails on his voyage west to better use the following winds. Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias sailed caravels on his voyage around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa in 1488. Vasco da Gama also used them to sail across the Indian Ocean to establish Portuguese colonies in Asia in 1498.

By the end of the 16th century, the caravel’s popularity had declined significantly. As European nations stepped up efforts to transport goods pillaged from faraway lands, demand for larger, more heavily armed ships increased. Efforts to enlarge the caravel proved unsuccessful—longer and wider versions did not sail as well as their smaller counterparts.

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I

Galleon

The 15th-century exploits of the great explorers earned riches and power for the seafaring nations of Europe. Spain devoted much of its new wealth to building a corps of battleships to accompany and protect merchant ships, laden with treasures collected in the Americas, against piracy. Toward this end, Spanish shipwrights developed the galleon, a modified, enlarged version of the carrack that became the premier ocean-going ship of the 16th and 17th centuries. Although developed as a warship, the galleon proved to be a fast and able sailer with a large cargo capacity. Most European nations adopted them to carry the treasures of Asia and the Americas back to Europe.

In galleons, the hull is longer and slimmer than in carracks. A high sterncastle and long beak at the bow give the hull a crescent shape. Excellent sailers, galleons carried three masts and flew square sails on the fore and main masts and a lateen sail on the mizzen. Some galleons had a fourth mast, which carried a lateen sail called a second, or bonaventure mizzen. The typical galleon was heavily armed, having two decks with cannons and several smaller decks that served as fighting platforms. These included a half-deck, a smaller quarterdeck, and a poop deck (a partial deck aft of the main mast).

Galleons fulfilled many famous missions. They were the principal fighting ships of the Spanish Armada of 1588. The small merchant galleon Mayflower brought the Pilgrims to America in 1620. The beautiful Swedish galleon Vasa, built by Dutch shipwrights for the King of Sweden, sank tragically on its maiden voyage in Stockholm harbor in 1628. A wind blew Vasa onto its side, allowing water to pour through the open gun ports. The ship lay in the mud at the bottom of the harbor until the 1960s, when it was resurrected and meticulously restored. Today the Vasa is the only surviving galleon and Stockholm's most popular public exhibit.

J

East Indiamen

In the 17th and 18th centuries the East India companies of western Europe devoted themselves to exploiting the wealth of South and Southeast Asia. Their home governments granted them the exclusive rights to import goods, such as spices, silks, precious stones, and arts and crafts, from India, Japan, China, Indonesia, and the Malay Peninsula. The most successful of these companies reaped immense profits, year after year, for more than two centuries.

East India companies carried riches between Asia and western Europe in ships called East Indiamen. These huge, three-masted merchant ships measured 800 tons or more and were armed with cannons on two gun decks to protect their valuable cargoes from piracy. In many cases, East Indiamen served as monuments to the power and riches of the companies that owned them and the countries from which they hailed. The massive ships were decorated with ornate, gilded carvings, and the interiors boasted luxurious wood and fabric finishes.

K

Ships of the Line

Sail-powered naval warfare climaxed from 1650 to 1840. During this period, ships carried heavy artillery to destroy their opponents—as many as 100 cannons, most placed in gun ports on the sides of the vessel. To accommodate the cannons, which could fire only straight out to the side of the vessel, warships fell into position in long orderly lines. The enemy usually lined up in the same formation and battle commenced, broadside against broadside.

This battle configuration earned the warships powerful enough to fight on the front lines of battle the name ships of the line. From the 17th century, British warships were rated in six classes, according to the number of guns they carried. Ships of the line claimed the highest ratings. First-rate ships had three gun decks with over 100 guns. Third-rate battleships with 60 guns or more were typically the lowest-rated vessels used as ships of the line by the British navy. In rare cases, fourth-rate ships, which had between 40 and 60 guns, served as ships of the line. Other navies used similar rating systems.

Ships of the line increased in size and firepower during the years that they were popular. In the mid-17th century the largest ships of the line reached 1,500 tons. By 1750 ships of 2,000 tons or more were common, and by 1800 ships of the line usually exceeded 2,500 tons. The hulls of these massive warships were often reinforced with double-layered oak planks up to 46 cm (18 in) thick. Such construction required unprecedented amounts of wood. For example, about 2,500 mature oak trees were used to build HMS Victory, Britain’s flagship at the famous Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. This superlative ship featured 32 km (20 mi) of rope and had a crew of 850 sailors and marines.

Like the East Indiamen merchant ships, ships of the line often served as monuments to the powers that built them. In many cases, no cost was spared in their construction. They were highly decorated with woodcarvings and featured officers’ quarters designed for comfort and elegance. Such luxuries were not extended to all the sailors, however. Most of the crew slept in hammocks suspended from beams on the gun decks.

L

Frigates, Sloops, and Brigs

In the 17th and 18th centuries, naval powers rated their battleships according to firepower. Fifth-rate and sixth-rate ships had fewer than 40 guns and were not considered powerful enough to fight in the front lines of battle. Classed as frigates, these ships were used to support ships of the line. They performed reconnaissance work, protected their own country’s merchant ships, and attacked the merchant ships of enemy nations.

Early frigates were light and fast. They carried three masts and could maneuver well in the close quarters of battle. Galley frigates were outfitted with oars as well as sails, making them even more agile in battle. They also cost less to build and maintain than their giant, heavily armed counterparts. These strengths appealed to the Congress of the United States, which created the United States Navy in 1794 and authorized the construction of six frigates. The United States, the Constitution and the President were armed with 44 guns, while the Constellation, the Chesapeake, and the Congress each had 36 guns, but two were soon upgraded to 38 guns. The Constitution, launched in 1797, earned the nickname Old Ironsides in 1812 for repelling the cannon balls fired by the British frigate Guerrière. Today berthed in Boston, Massachusetts, the Constitution is the oldest ship in the U.S. Navy and the oldest warship afloat.

Several types of smaller battleships also commonly operated in naval warfare in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. The sloop (or corvette, the French equivalent) ranked below the frigate in firepower. Sloops had two masts, carried about 100 men, and were armed with 18 or fewer guns. Sloops ran down privateers, privately owned, armed vessels that preyed on merchant ships.

The brig also saw military action. Two-masted with several square sails, brigs served in many European navies of the 18th century. In the United States the brig Niagara became famous for its part in the defeat of the British at the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813.

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