Mongol Empire

C

1

Final Decline of the Golden Horde

Emboldened by these victories, Tokhtamish began invading Tamerlane’s territories in Central Asia. In response, Tamerlane attacked Tokhtamish, finally defeating him in 1395. In doing so, Tamerlane so greatly weakened the Golden Horde that he unwittingly helped unify the Russians. The Golden Horde broke up in the 1400s, emerging as the independent khanates of Kazan’, Astrakhan’, Sibir (Siberia), and Crimea. In the 1500s three of these independent khanates were conquered by Russian tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich (Ivan the Terrible), and in 1783 the last one, Crimea, was annexed to Russia.

D

The Il-Khanid Dynasty of Southwest Asia

During the reign of Mangu Khan, his brother Hulagu invaded the powerful Muslim caliphate of the Abbasids. In 1257 Hulagu launched a three-pronged attack on the Abbasid capital of Baghdād (now the capital of Iraq). The Abbasid caliph (supreme leader of the Muslim community), al-Mustasim, surrendered in February 1258, and Baghdād was pillaged and destroyed. Hulagu ordered al-Mustasim put to death.

After capturing Baghdād, Hulagu established the Il-Khanid dynasty. His khanate formed the southwestern section of the Mongol Empire. In 1259 he set out on a campaign to overtake Syria. The cities of Aleppo and Damascus soon fell, and the Mongols pressed on to the frontier of Egypt, then ruled by the Mamluks. However, news of Mangu’s death prompted Hulagu to return east, leaving his general Ked-Buka in command with much-reduced forces.

In 1260 the Mamluk general Baybars attacked Mongol forces at Ayn Jalut, near the Jordan River in Palestine. Ked-Buka was defeated, captured, and executed. Following the battle, the Mamluks annexed Syria and Baybars became the sultan of the powerful Mamluk state. For the Mongols, the battle ended a widespread reputation for invincibility. It also marked the end of Mongol expansion toward the Mediterranean.

---

---

D

1

Height and Decline of the Il-Khanid Dynasty

In 1295 Hulagu’s great-grandson Ghazan began his short but brilliant reign, bringing the Il-Khanid dynasty to its height. He introduced new systems of taxation, reformed the armed forces, and improved communications. Along with Mongolian, the Turkish, Persian, and Arabic languages were employed in government. Iranian culture was promoted, although new Mongol elements were infused in both art and architecture.

Ghazan converted to Islam and made it the official religion of his realm. He also took great interest in the history and traditions of his people, on which he was an authority. At his suggestion one of his ministers, the Iranian historian Rashid ad-Din, compiled the Jami-at-Tawarikh (Collection of Histories), a vast historical encyclopedia. Ghazan himself was the primary source for much of its information about the Mongols.

The administration of the later Il-Khans, however, was poor, and when the khan Abu Said died without a male heir in 1395, the khanate broke up into small states ruled mainly by Iranians. By the end of the century, Tamerlane had swept the region into his empire.

VI

Legacy of the Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire ushered in an era of frequent and extended contacts between East and West. For the first time, Europeans journeyed as far east as China. Artisans, envoys, missionaries, and merchants—including Marco Polo—made the trip. This increased contact created a demand for Asian goods in Europe and inspired Europeans to search for a sea route to Asia.

	More from Encarta
	•  Presidential Myths Quiz •  Coffee break: Recharge your brain