Clothing

A

4

Crete

Minoan civilization flourished on the island of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea from about 3000 bc until about 1200 bc, when it was devastated by earthquakes and conquered by people from the Greek mainland. Minoan art shows women and men athletes wearing little more than a loincloth while performing dangerous stunts such as leaping over bulls. Minoan wall paintings also depict goddesses and priestesses wearing what was probably the dress of upper-class women, consisting of a short-sleeved, laced bodice cut to expose the breasts; a long, bell-shaped skirt; and a tight sash around the waist. This style has intrigued historians because it differs so dramatically from typical Mediterranean clothing worn in ancient Egypt and Greece.

A

5

Greece

Ancient Greece is famous for its philosophy, art, literature, and politics. As a result, classical Greek style in dress has often been revived when later societies wished to evoke some revered aspect of ancient Greek civilization, such as democratic government. A Greek style in dress became fashionable in France shortly after the French Revolution (1789-1799), because the style was thought to express the democratic ideals for which that revolution was fought. Clothing reformers later in the 19th century admired ancient Grecian dress because they thought it represented timeless beauty, the opposite of complicated and rapidly changing fashions of their time.

Ancient Greek clothing consisted of unsewn lengths of linen or wool fabric, generally rectangular and secured with a fibula (ornamented clasp or pin) and a sash. Typical of such garments were the peplos, a loose robe worn by women; the chlamys, a cloak worn by men; and the chiton, a tunic worn by both men and women. Men’s chitons hung to the knees, whereas women’s chitons fell to their ankles. The basic outer garment during winter was the himation, a larger cloak worn over the peplos or chlamys.

Women dressed modestly in ancient Greece, and in many areas they wore a veil whenever they left the house. By contrast, male nudity received religious sanction, and naked male athletes participated in ritualized athletic competitions such as the ancient Olympic Games. Although ancient Egyptians had associated nakedness with lower status—that of children and slaves—in classical Greece male nakedness represented goodness and beauty.

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A

6

Rome

The clothing of ancient Rome, like that of ancient Greece, is well known from art, literature, and archaeology. Aspects of Roman clothing also have had an enormous appeal to the Western imagination.

Probably the most significant item in the ancient Roman wardrobe was the toga, a one-piece woolen garment that draped loosely around the shoulders and down the body. Historians believe that the toga was originally worn by all Romans, and that it was worn without undergarments. By the 2nd century bc, however, it was worn over a tunic, and the tunic became the basic item of dress for both men and women. Only men who were citizens of Rome wore the toga. Women wore an outer garment known as a stola, which was similar to the Greek chiton.

Women, slaves, foreigners, and others who were not citizens of ancient Rome were forbidden from wearing the toga. By the same token, Roman citizens were required to wear the toga when conducting official business. Over time, the toga evolved from a national to a ceremonial costume. Different types of togas indicated age, profession, and social rank. The toga of adult citizens, the toga virilis, was made of plain white wool and worn by men over 14 years of age. A woman convicted of adultery might be forced to wear a toga as a badge of shame and a symbol of the loss of her female identity. Girls and boys under the age of puberty sometimes wore a special kind of toga with a reddish-purple band on the lower edge, called the toga praetexta. This toga was also worn by magistrates and high priests as an indication of their status. The toga candita, an especially whitened toga, was worn by political candidates. Prostitutes wore the toga muliebris, rather than the tunics worn by most women. The toga pulla was dark-colored and worn for mourning, while the toga purpurea, of purple-dyed wool, was worn in times of triumph and by the Roman emperor.

Togas could be wrapped in different ways, and they became larger and more voluminous over the centuries. Some innovations were purely fashionable. Because it was not easy to wear a toga without tripping over it or trailing drapery, some variations in wrapping served a practical function. Other styles were required, for instance covering the head during ceremonies. Roman writer Seneca criticized men who wore their togas too loosely or carelessly. He also criticized men who wore what were considered feminine or outrageous styles, including togas that were almost transparent.

The ancient Romans were aware that their clothing differed from that of other peoples. In particular, they noted the long trousers worn by people they considered barbarians from the north, including the Germanic Franks and Goths. The figures depicted on ancient Roman armored breastplates often include barbarian warriors in shirts and trousers. The Romans would have been horrified to learn that fitted, sewn clothing replaced their draped garments.

Roman clothing took on symbolic meaning for later generations. Roman armor, particularly the cuirass (breastplate), has symbolized imperial power. In Europe during the Renaissance (15th and 16th centuries), painters and sculptors sometimes depicted rulers wearing pseudo-Roman military attire, including the cuirass, military cloak, and sandals. Later, during the French Revolution, an effort was made to dress officials in uniforms based on the Roman toga, to symbolize the importance of citizenship to a republic. The 18th-century liberty cap, a brimless, limp cap fitting snugly around the head, was based on a bonnet worn by freed slaves in ancient Rome. The modern Western bride has also inherited elements from ancient Roman wedding attire, such as the bridal veil and the wedding ring.

B

Africa

While the clothing of ancient Greece and Rome has long been familiar to Europeans, scholars have studied the clothing of Africa only for the last 200 years or so. Because the African continent is vast and contains a variety of different environments and societies, the people of Africa dress in many types and styles of clothing, with some basic similarities appearing in the clothing of each region.

In ancient times Berber people inhabited deserts and mountains of North Africa west of Egypt, which was part of the Roman Empire. Some Berber clothing, such as the haik, or cloth drape, is related to the Roman toga. After the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 7th century ad, most Berbers converted to Islam.

Since the Arab conquest, Islamic codes about physical modesty have heavily influenced the clothing of North Africa. Many men in North Africa still wear a full-length tunic, with elbow-length or long sleeves, called a djellaba or a kaftan. The djellaba is made of cotton or wool, and in modern cities it is often worn over a European suit or trousers. A similar type of loose-fitting overgarment is a cloak called a burnoose, which often has a hood. With the djellaba, men traditionally wear turbans, headdresses that consist of a long scarf of linen, cotton, or silk wound around the head.

North African women have traditionally worn veils and scarves to cover their heads, and long robes. Beneath their robes and veils, they wear a long blouse or a second robe with either traditional loose trousers, called chalwar, or a skirt. Alternatively, they may wear modest versions of Western dress. Both Berber and Arab women usually wear a great deal of jewelry, some of which forms part of their dowry (property brought to marriage) and indicates wealth and status.

Nomadic peoples of North Africa, including the Tuareg and the Fulani, have their own special costumes. Among the Tuareg, men, rather than women, wear a headdress and a veil. Fulani women characteristically wear bright robes of cotton, elaborate hairdos, and large gold earrings.

In northeastern Africa clothing typically consists of tunics and wrapped skirts. The Amhara people of Ethiopia practice a very ancient form of Christianity, and their clothing resembles that worn in the Roman Empire during the early Christian period: long tunics, togalike wraps, and, for men, white turbans . In Somalia, Islam has influenced clothing, and many women wear veils after marriage. Both men and women wear elaborate beaded jewelry.

Many nomadic herders live in East Africa. The Masai people live mostly in Kenya and Tanzania, and the Dinka people live in the Republic of the Sudan. Traditionally, the Masai, like other Nilotic peoples, have worn minimal dress, such as a simple cloth wrapped around the waist and legs, and elaborate body paint. They also wear beaded ornamentation in the form of necklaces or collars. Traditional dress depends on age and marital status. Young warriors, for example, wear beaded necklaces and earplugs (thick, cylindrical ornaments worn on the earlobe), with special hairstyles and headdresses. Warriors also wear short skirts of fur or hide, while women wear cloth skirts. Unmarried women go bare-chested and wear a beaded belt with their skirt. Married women traditionally wear cotton cloth body wraps, which come in a variety of colors, with red a favorite.

During the European colonization of East Africa beginning in the 1800s, Europeans were shocked by the near-nakedness of the native nomadic peoples. Traditional African body decoration such as body paint and scarification (patterns of decorative scars) also distressed Europeans. Modern African governments have exerted pressure on nomadic groups to wear modern clothing sufficient to cover the genitals and women’s breasts. Dinka men, for example, traditionally wear only a beaded waist corset, the color of which conveys their age. By the 1980s, however, they were legally required to wear additional clothing when they entered a town.

Dress has also been a political issue in Central Africa, where traditional clothing and adornment is seldom seen today. After Rwanda and Burundi gained independence in the early 1960s, their governments required the people to wear modern clothing. During the 1960s and occasionally thereafter, the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo discouraged both traditional dress and certain Western styles, such as the miniskirt, that it viewed as immodest. As a symbol of personal freedom, some young people in cities wear modern, European-style fashions as seen in fashion magazines such as Vogue.

Clothing in West Africa shows the influence of Islamic styles imported from North Africa, especially in the extent to which it covers the body. Women usually wear a long wrapped skirt, a loose blouse, and a head wrap. Many of the skirts are made of printed cloth, the patterns of which change from year to year. Men in some areas wear a long robe, called a gandoura, over loose trousers. In other areas they wear Western-style pants and shirts. On ceremonial occasions, tribal leaders and other important men in Ghana wear a garment wrapped like a toga.

In West Africa clothing for people of the highest status is made of kente cloth. Tribal kings traditionally wore this silk material, which is notable for its elaborately woven decorative patterns. Kente cloth (and its imitations) has become an important symbol of African pride among descendants of enslaved Africans in the Americas. Whereas weaving has been considered women's work in most of the world, in West Africa, men weave certain kinds of prestigious textiles. Other well-known textiles of West Africa include mud-cloth of Mali and cotton textiles of Nigeria. Mud-cloth has patterns of gray-brown on an off-white background, which are produced by a special dying process. Nigerian cottons are elaborately decorated with blue dye from the indigo plant.

In southern Africa both minimal and modest styles of dress exist. Among the Himba, a nomadic herding people living in Namibia, men and women wear little more than red body paint and short skirts. These skirts were once made of hide but are now made of cloth as well. The Himba have elaborately braided hairstyles. For protection from the elements and as decoration, they cover their bodies, including their hair, with a mixture of animal grease and red ochre powder. Among the Herero, also of Namibia, women wear full-sleeved and full-skirted long cotton dresses, a style introduced by German missionaries in the 19th century. Among the Xhosa of South Africa, unmarried girls wear short skirts and go bare-chested; married Xhosa women wear longer skirts, cover their breasts, and wear elaborate head wraps. The Zulu people of South Africa, who dress similarly to the Xhosa, also create elaborate beadwork for belts, pouches, jewelry, and other accessories. Zulu chiefs wear leopard skins on ceremonial occasions. Zulu women often wear tall, stiff woven hats.

C

Asia

Asia can be roughly divided into Chinese and Indian spheres of influence. Chinese clothing styles have influenced the clothing of neighboring countries, including Japan and Korea; Indian clothing styles have influenced the clothing of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia and Thailand.

China is the most populous country in the world, home to members of 56 different ethnic groups distinguished primarily by language and religion. As a result of its size and diverse population, China has seen many clothing styles.

Many Westerners think that Chinese clothing has remained unchanged for 5,000 years. In fact, styles have changed greatly over the centuries. Although the basic garment has remained a long, wide-sleeved robe that is tied with a sash and worn over a skirt or trousers, experts can distinguish easily between the clothing of different periods. Around 200 BC, a popular women’s fashion in southern China was a robe of patterned silk, which was wrapped in a spiral around the body. Soldiers of the same period wore armor, made of small metal plates, over tunics and trousers. From the late 6th century through the 7th century ad, for example, Chinese women wore high-waisted skirts and short jackets. This style formed the model for Korean women's dress in modern times. In the 8th century, women in royal Chinese courts often wore flamboyant clothing, with long, flowing sleeves and winglike decorative panels that hung from the sleeves. Until the 9th century, when foot binding was introduced to prevent the feet of girls from growing, both men and women in China wore the same kind of high shoes.

When the Manchus from the north conquered China in 1644, they modified Chinese men's official dress to make it look more like their own. Manchu women wore long robes and platform shoes, while Chinese women had bound feet and wore shorter robes (more like jackets) over skirts or trousers.

Clothing in China was regulated by social status, gender, age, and occasion, beginning at least as early as 500 BC and continuing until the early 20th century. A man's status was apparent in the type of hat that he wore, as well as by badges of rank that indicated his exact place in the social hierarchy. Members of the upper class tended to wear long robes. Both male and female peasants wore jackets and trousers. Members of the imperial court and court officials could wear the dragon robe, a long gown embroidered with dragons, legendary creatures that were an emblem of heaven and the emperor. Dragon robes appeared as early as 1000.

The regulations regarding apparel appeared to break down at times. In the 14th century, Chinese conservatives complained that fashions were changing too rapidly and that the lower classes were usurping the styles of their superiors. Although a pattern of regular style change comparable to that of modern fashion had not emerged, it appears that fashion-oriented behavior has existed in a number of non-Western regions in various historical periods.

From the 8th to the 12th century in Japan, for example, it was a term of praise to call something imamekashi (up-to-date). Although the kimono—a T-shaped garment with wide sleeves that was tied with a sash—remained essentially unchanged as the basic article of clothing for Japanese women for centuries, colors and patterns changed according to the current fashion, as did the way of wearing kimonos. Social conventions also influenced kimono styles. A kimono with a brightly colored flower pattern and long dangling sleeves was, and is still, regarded as suitable only for a young, unmarried woman.

In the early 20th century, traditional clothing began to give way to styles that combined elements of Asian and Western dress. For example, in the 1920s Chinese women began wearing the qi pao (or in Cantonese, the cheongsam), a new slim dress with a high collar and a slit skirt that combined Chinese, Manchu, and Western styles. After a Communist government led by Mao Zedong took control in China in 1949, Chinese people increasingly had to wear the so-called Mao suit, a jacket and trousers of heavy, dark blue cotton. The outfit, which resembled a uniform, was worn by Mao. After Mao died in 1976, the Chinese began again to choose their own styles of dress, and interest revived in the traditional clothing of China’s many ethnic minorities.

In Japan and Korea, Western-style clothing became widespread for both men and women in the 20th century, but by the end of the century interest in traditional clothing had returned. While many people in both countries wear Western-style clothing every day, they may wear traditional clothing for special occasions and holidays.

Clothing styles were well established in India by 3000 bc. Indian clothing styles were based on large rectangles of cloth wrapped around the body. The classic Indian clothing styles include the sari for women and the dhoti for men. The sari, a long piece of fabric, is made of cotton or silk, often elaborately decorated with dyed, woven, or embroidered patterns. It is wrapped around the body and worn with a short, fitted bodice. There are many styles of wrapping saris, and various styles are associated with different regions of India. In Pakistan, which was once part of India, women wear very full-cut trousers under, or in place of, the wrapped sari. The dhoti is also a rectangular cloth that can be wrapped around the legs to form a skirt or wrapped and brought up between the legs to form loose pants.

Wrapped and tied cloth rectangles called sarongs are typical apparel for men and women in Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia. Sarongs can be wrapped to form a full-length garment or to form a skirt that is worn with a fitted jacket or top.

Tailored clothing that fits the body closely reached India and other parts of southern Asia with the expansion of the Islamic religion to the region, beginning in about the 14th century. Islamic influence resulted in the introduction of garments based on Persian clothing, such as trousers and fitted coats, as well as veils for women and turbans for men. As in other parts of the world, by the 20th century Western-style clothing had greatly influenced everyday clothing styles in India and Southeast Asia.

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