Election

I

Introduction

Election, procedure that allows members of an organization or community to choose representatives who will hold positions of authority within it. The most important elections select the leaders of local, state, and national governments. The chance to decide who will govern at these levels serves as an opportunity for the public to make choices about the policies, programs, and future directions of government action. At the same time, elections promote accountability. The threat of defeat at the polls exerts pressure on those in power to conduct themselves in a responsible manner and take account of popular interests and wishes when they make their decisions.

In the United States, elections are held at regular intervals. National presidential elections take place every four years. Congressional elections occur every two years. Elections for state and local office usually coincide with national elections. The responsibility for organizing elections rests largely with state and local governments. State laws specify how elections are to be administered, determine the boundaries of electoral districts, and specify the qualifications of candidates. State, county, and municipal election boards administer elections. These boards establish and staff polling places and verify the eligibility of individuals who come to vote.

II

Voting Rights

Native-born or naturalized (foreign-born) U.S. citizens over the age of 18 possess the right to vote. Citizens can lose their right to vote. All states prohibit felons (people convicted of serious crimes) from voting during their imprisonment or parole, and 13 states bar felons from voting for life. However, convicted felons who have regained their right to vote cannot be denied the right to vote if they move to any of those 13 states.

During the early years of the nation’s history, legislatures in the United States generally restricted the right to vote to white males over the age of 21. In addition, many states also limited voting rights to those who owned property or paid more than a specified annual tax. State governments began to rescind property and tax requirements during the 1820s and 1830s. By the end of the Civil War in 1865, the majority of these requirements had disappeared, at least as they affected voting by white males. Women did not fully gain the right to vote in the United States until the 19th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified in 1920.

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At the time of the Civil War, black males had won the right to vote in most Northern states. The 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1870, secured their right to vote throughout the nation. Despite the 15th Amendment, the states of the former Confederacy effectively rescinded the voting rights of blacks in the 1880s. During this period, the Southern states created what was called the Jim Crow system of racial segregation. As part of this system, a variety of devices, such as poll taxes, literacy tests, and property qualifications, prevented virtually all blacks from voting. During the 1950s and 1960s, the civil rights movement, led by Martin Luther King, Jr., and other civil rights leaders, demanded the restoration of black voting rights. Enactment of the 1965 federal Voting Rights Act accomplished this goal. This law provided for the U.S. Department of Justice to oversee registration of voters in states with histories of discrimination against minority citizens.

Women won the right to vote in 1920, through ratification of the 19th Amendment. This amendment resulted primarily from the activities of the women’s voting rights, or suffrage, movement led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Carrie Chapman Catt. The suffragists held rallies, demonstrations, and protest marches for nearly a half-century before achieving their goal. The most recent expansion of voting rights in the United States took place in 1971, with the ratification of the 26th Amendment. This amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.

III

Voter Participation

Compared to voter participation rates of citizens in other democracies, participation in U.S. elections is low. Slightly more than 50 percent of those eligible participate in national presidential elections. Barely 30 percent of eligible voters take part in congressional elections during nonpresidential election years. Turnout plummets even further in state and local races that do not coincide with national contests. In European nations, by contrast, voter turnout consistently exceeds 80 percent.

During the 19th century, American political party machines boosted voter participation rates by employing hundreds of thousands of workers to organize and mobilize voters and bring them to the polls. In some areas, turnout among those eligible to vote approached 90 percent. Political machines began to decline in strength in the early 20th century and have since largely disappeared. Without party workers to encourage them to go to the polls, and even to bring them there if necessary, many eligible voters will not participate. In the absence of strong parties, participation rates have dropped severely among poorer and less-educated citizens. Voting rates are nearly twice as high among the wealthiest fifth of the population as they are among the poorest fifth. A weakened party system has contributed to the creation of an American electorate that is smaller and more skewed toward upper income groups.

IV

Voter Registration

In addition to differences in political party strength, these national differences in voter participation result from variations in registration rules and the organization of elections. In Europe, governments automatically register their citizens as voters. In the United States, eligible voters must register with state election boards before they may vote. Progressive Era reformers introduced registration requirements at the end of the 19th century to make voting more difficult and thereby reduce voting fraud and other forms of electoral abuse. In Southern states, these requirements also provided an additional way to deprive both blacks and poor whites of the opportunity to vote. In urban areas, registration rules discouraged immigrant and working class voters from going to the polls.

Registration requirements have eased in most states since the 1960s. An eligible individual may now register to vote by simply mailing a postcard to the state election board. The 1993 federal “Motor-Voter” Act required states to make such postcards available in motor vehicle, public assistance, and military recruitment offices. Legislators hoped that easing burdens on voters might reverse trends in voting participation.

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