Chinese Art and Architecture

V

Qin, Han, and Six Dynasties

Although brief, the Qin (Ch’in) dynasty (221-206 bc) played an important part in Chinese history. The political breakdown of the late Eastern Zhou empire ended with a consolidation of power under emperor Qin Shihuangdi (Ch’in Shih-huang-ti). It is from this ruler’s household that the name China is derived. When this powerful ruler died, he was entombed in a massive burial mound in the northwestern province of Shanxi (Shansi). This royal grave came to light only recently, revealing more than 6,000 terra-cotta human figures and horses intended to protect the emperor’s crypt. The figures were carefully fashioned to resemble one of his real infantries, with well-outfitted officers, charioteers, and archers, as well as youthful foot soldiers. Now faded with the passage of time, the army was originally painted in a wide variety of bright colors. Although human sacrifice, a practice associated with Shang burials, had long been abandoned, the desire to have protection on the journey after death remained an important element in burial practice.

The second Qin ruler was unable to retain his father’s strength and yielded control to the Han household in 206 bc. China remained under Han rule for more than 400 years (206 bc-ad 220), a period of vital significance in the history of Chinese art.

A

Painting

Painting, which had begun in the late Zhou dynasty, flourished during the Han. Tombs were still the primary focus for artists and architects, and the most popular subjects of paintings were the afterlife and legends of ancient heroes. In these paintings is evident the attempt, not found in earlier Chinese art, to depict space and distance. During the Han period the first landscape elements appear in painting; at this early stage, however, they are restricted to small trees or mountains. Historical texts from this era indicate that large portraits of the emperors adorned the palace and that murals were often painted in the royal residences. Unfortunately, all traces of this artwork have been lost.

B

Tombs and Tomb Artifacts

As with painting, only the architecture of the tomb survives. Stories of magnificent imperial palaces are found in Han histories, but the palaces themselves have long since been destroyed. The elaborate construction of burial sites gives a strong indication of the sophisticated architectural technology that must have existed. Intricate systems of vaulting and columnar support replaced the timber and packed-earth structures of the previous dynasties. The Han people richly furnished the interiors of their graves with a wide variety of miniature objects, usually fashioned as replicas of actual possessions, animals, or buildings. Called ming ji yi (ming-chi’i) (“spirit goods”), these items were used as substitutes for valuable possessions. Ming ji yi were usually produced in ceramic and were glazed or colorfully painted. A typical grave contained miniatures of home, a barnyard, favorite pets and servants, and an assortment of objects from daily life.

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Although the popularity of ming ji yi decreased the quality of artifacts found in graves, some examples of extravagance in the Han rival the great Shang burials. The underground tomb chambers of Prince Liu Sheng and his wife Dou Wan (Tou Wan) (died about 120 bc), discovered in Hebei (Hopeh) Province in 1968, held a rich array of lacquers, silks, pottery, and bronze vessels, some gilded and some inlaid with gold. Both bodies were clothed in so-called jade suits, body coverings fashioned of small, rectangular pieces of jade sewn together with gold thread. Each outfit contains more than 2,000 individual pieces of the precious stone, long believed to symbolize eternal life. Chinese archaeologists estimate that each suit took more than ten years to complete.

The wealth of the Han court could not prevent the eventual overthrow of the dynasty in ad 220. The next four centuries, during which rival clans attempted to control portions of the empire, is referred to as the Six Dynasties (ad 220-589). During this period Chinese art was influenced by new ideas, including important religious developments. The native belief systems, Confucianism and Daoism (Taoism), fostered different subject matter and styles in the arts. Scenes of filial piety were the most popular expression of the Confucian ideal; the freer, nature-loving Daoists favored landscapes and folk legends.

C

Buddhist Art

The most profound effect of religion on the art of the Six Dynasties was Buddhism, which came from neighboring India. The first examples of Buddhist art were the small statues carried to China by Indian Buddhists. By the 4th century an influx of styles and subjects created a new category of Buddhist art and architecture within the Chinese tradition. In western China, the monastery at Dunhuang (Tunhwang) still preserves important wall paintings based on sacred stories. Monumental sculpture, a contribution from northern India, gained popularity and led to the creation of massive stone carvings of Buddhist deities in the mountains of Henan and Shaanxi (Shensi) provinces. Wooden pagodas, an architectural form based both on the Indian stupa and the Han-dynasty tower, was a significant structural contribution of this period. By the 6th century, Buddhism had permeated nearly every facet of Chinese cultural life.

D

Painting

Although Buddhist art dominated much of the Six Dynasties’ achievements, secular traditions were also changing. Gu Kaizhi (Ku K’ai-chih), considered the father of landscape painting, worked during this period. Three paintings are attributed to his hand, although probably only copies remain. They include two versions of the Fairy of the Lo River story (Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., and Palace Museum, Beijing) and the scroll entitled Admonitions of the Instructress to the Ladies of the Court (British Museum, London). The figures and landscape elements in his work have a formal, almost stiff quality, but they also possess a delicacy and an ethereal character that continue throughout the long landscape tradition of Chinese art.

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