Chinese Art and Architecture

I

Introduction

Chinese Art and Architecture, art and architecture of China from the Neolithic (New Stone Age) culture to the present, representing the most significant achievement of the world’s longest continuous civilization. The principle that underlies all aspects of Chinese culture—harmonious balance—is exemplified in its art. Chinese art is a careful balance of traditions and innovations, of both native and foreign ideas, and of religious and secular images.

II

Historical Development

China’s emperors were the earliest and most frequent patrons of the arts. Most artists and architects were government employees, working by royal order. In contrast, amateur artists, often retired or exiled officials, were free from the restraints of court control; their work reflects an important individualism that often differs from the imperial styles. The rise or decline of a particular royal household would affect profoundly the course of Chinese art. Although widely diverse in their cultural inclinations, all dynastic rulers shared an interest in preserving tradition. Chinese kings, especially those establishing a new dynasty, were anxious to gain legitimacy in the eyes of their subjects. A common way to secure support was to continue the artistic achievements of past dynasties. New influences, often entering China from India or the Middle East, were also sanctioned by the court, but any innovative ideas in art, religion, or philosophy were carefully woven into the preexisting fabric of Chinese life.

The art of China’s earliest dynastic periods, often called the Bronze Age, from the Shang to the Han dynasty, focused on the cult of the dead. Concerned with securing immortality and safe passage to the afterlife, kings and their officers constructed and decorated lavish tombs. The Chinese favored underground burials, and many tombs remain intact. Intricately fashioned bronze vessels, weapons, carved jades, and ceramic objects were placed near the coffin to provide comfort and protection in the next world. The walls of the burial chamber were often decorated with carved or painted ornamental scenes depicting popular legends or activities of daily life. Archaeological fieldwork, which has increased dramatically in China since 1950, has unearthed a wealth of ancient material.

Foreign travel and political turmoil affected the character of Chinese art in the centuries following the collapse of the Han dynasty in ad 220. Buddhism, introduced in the 4th century ad, brought new styles of architecture, sculpture, and painting from India. In addition, the Buddhist doctrine stressing the human spirit’s ability to transcend death caused a decline in opulent burial customs. By the time China was unified under the Tang (T’ang) dynasty in the 7th century, the subject matter of art had become more cosmopolitan and worldly. Secular architecture reached unprecedented grandeur; landscape painting and portraiture flourished; and technological advances in ceramics led to the development of fine porcelain during the Tang dynasty.

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The dynasties following the Tang refined and expanded on its achievements. Landscape painting became an important expression of both art and philosophy, particularly among the wenren (wen-jen)—amateur painters working outside the court. At court, paintings of the favored subjects—birds and flowers, animals and children—were produced in vast numbers for the royal collections. Calligraphy, the art of writing characters, was elevated to a position of great significance. In addition to the pictorial arts, China’s most enduring art form, ceramics, reached new heights of technological and aesthetic brilliance. Royalty and wealthy subjects decorated their homes with an array of objects such as carved lacquers, woven tapestries, ivories, jades, and precious metals (Metalwork). Architecture, from the Song (Sung) dynasty on, also increased in sophistication. Many of the structures built during the Ming and Qing (Ch’ing) periods still stand in Beijing.

Throughout China’s history its artists were highly trained in specific skills and, with the exception of the amateur artists, were attached to large, well-organized workshops. Knowledge of materials and techniques was passed from generation to generation within families. Although the tools used by Chinese artists were relatively simple, such as a bamboo brush or a wooden beater, the construction of their looms, kilns, and foundries reveals an understanding of complex production procedures. The fast-turning potter’s wheel in the Neolithic period and the remarkable results of bronze casting in the Shang dynasty are testimony to the high technical skill of these early Chinese artists.

III

Shang Dynasty

The Shang civilization (1570?-1045? bc) grew directly from the achievements of the Neolithic cultural period (about 4000-2000 bc), an important epoch in early Chinese history. During the Neolithic period, the beginnings of agriculture and the domestication of animals led to the establishment of villages. With this new pattern of life came the earliest burial practices, including the interment of objects from daily life, thus preserving artifacts. Neolithic tombs have yielded a rich variety of ceramics, the most notable being large, painted jars that were probably burial urns, as well as footed vessels of polished black clay. The latter, which were turned on a potter’s wheel, were associated with a ritual ceremony. Jade and stone tools have also been discovered, and it is likely that the Neolithic Chinese had some knowledge of metallurgy, although definite proof has yet to be found.

The Shang people originated as a clan of Neolithic villagers in the central Chinese province of Henan (Honan). Their dynastic rule is usually divided into two periods, one before and one after the establishment of the royal capital at Anyang in the 13th century bc. A number of Shang cities were established in the pre-Anyang period, but most artifacts of the period, including ceramics, jades, and bronze vessels, have been discovered in graves. The artifacts are of particular significance because they prove the existence of rituals requiring special containers for food and wine. These ceremonies stimulated a desire for vessels of ever more elaborate decoration, and, to meet the demand, the technology of metallurgy advanced rapidly.

The Anyang period marks the final two and one-half centuries of Shang rule. The archaeological work carried out near this ancient capital has increased knowledge of Shang art and culture. It is clear from inscriptions found on animal bones (called oracle bones) and bronze vessels that the rulers were deeply concerned with ensuring their immortality. They practiced a complex system of ancestor worship that included offerings of foods and liquids at their temples. The vessels were a vital part of the ceremony and suggest that the Shang people had several cult images. Often the entire surface of a ritual bronze was decorated with monsters and birds and occasionally with a human figure.

Shang kings also constructed elaborate tombs. Convinced they could carry material possessions to the next life, members of the royal household were buried with much of their personal wealth. In 1975, Chinese archaeologists discovered the Anyang tomb of a Shang king’s favored wife. An inventory of the objects revealed more than 400 bronze vessels and weapons as well as 600 pieces of jade and stone. The high artistic quality of these objects—among them, carefully carved jade figures and bronzes in the shape of animals and birds—gives further evidence of the advanced character of China’s earliest dynastic art.

IV

Zhou Dynasty

The Shang kings were unable to control the increasing strength of a neighboring tribe, called the Zhou (Chou), who lived on their western border. In about 1045 bc the Zhou (1045?-256 bc) attacked Anyang and established their dynastic seat there. At first, much of the conquered Shang culture was retained. Indeed, bronzes and jades from the Xi’an (Sian) period, also called the Western Zhou period, resemble those of the preceding dynasty. As the system of ancestor worship began to disintegrate, vessels once used in the temples became valuable trophies given by the king to powerful subjects. Vessels were cast to commemorate victories in war or the granting of land. These bronzes usually carried long inscriptions explaining the event being commemorated and are now valuable records of early Chinese history.

Forced to flee from other tribal attackers, the Zhou moved their capital from Xi’an to Luoyang, another city in Henan, in 771 bc, marking the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period. The geographical break with the Shang past was reflected in Eastern Zhou art. Bronzes became more secular and were often given as wedding gifts for household decoration. Images of totemic animals and monsters gave way to colorful, abstract ornament, often inlaid on the surface in gold or semiprecious stones. Bronze bells and mirrors were also popular during this period.

Late Eastern Zhou art displays the diversity and skill in techniques that characterize the rest of the history of Chinese art. Paintings on silk, the earliest examples of this medium, have been discovered in Eastern Zhou tombs. Wood sculpture, lacquerwork, and glazed ceramics also indicate new developments and styles.

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