Chinese Philosophy

I

Introduction

Chinese Philosophy, collective designation for the various schools of thought originated by Chinese scholars and sages. Chinese philosophy has passed through three distinct historical stages: the classical age, a creative period from the 6th to the early 2nd century bc; the so-called medieval age, from the late 2nd century bc to the 17th century ad, a period of synthesis and absorption of foreign thought; and the modern age, from the late 17th century to the present, a period of maturation of earlier philosophical trends and introduction of new philosophies from the West.

II

Classical Age

The classical age of Chinese philosophy occurred in the late years of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty, which lasted from about 1045 bc to 256 bc. During this era of political and social turmoil, feudal states long subordinate to the house of Zhou gained economic and military strength and moved toward independence. When their power eclipsed that of the Zhou, feudal bonds were broken, and widespread interstate warfare broke out during the Spring and Autumn period (722-481 bc). This developed into political anarchy in the Warring States period (403-221 bc). Meanwhile, the social and economic changes resulting from new currents of trade and commerce were disrupting China’s simple agricultural society. In this climate of political anarchy and social upheaval a new class of scholar-officials emerged, consisting of men who aspired through their learning and wisdom to reunify the empire and restore order to society.

A

Confucius and Later Disciples

The most important of these scholar-officials was Confucius, known in Chinese as Kungzi (also spelled K’ung-tzu). He was a minor aristocrat and official of the state of Lu, in what is now Shandong Province, and he spent most of his life in the late 500s and early 400s bc as an itinerant scholar-teacher and adviser to the rulers of various Chinese states. Confucius thought that the way to reform society was to cultivate ethical behavior in individuals, especially in rulers and their ministers because leaders serve as important role models for their people.

According to Confucius, individuals should cultivate virtue by following the dao (tao, meaning “way”), the practices and teachings of China’s ancient kings who were sages. These practices included sacred rituals, such as making offerings of food to one’s ancestors, and the study of classical texts. Cultivated individuals will have a deep commitment to their own families, but this will result in a better society overall, Confucius believed.

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Confucius did not speak directly on such issues as the nature of human beings, the rights of the people against tyrannical rulers, and the influence of the supernatural in human affairs. Two of his 4th and 3rd century bc disciples, Mencius (in Chinese, Mengzi or Meng-Tzu) and Xunzi (Hsün-tzu), did much to clarify these issues.

Mencius asserted that human nature is good and that it can be developed not only by study, as Confucius had taught, but also by a process of cultivating one’s innate (inborn) tendencies. By this, Mencius meant cultivating our inclination toward compassion for the suffering of others, our disdain for doing what is wrong, and so forth. Like Confucius, Mencius believed that the Zhou rulers held their position under a doctrine known as the Mandate of Heaven; Heaven was thought to be the impersonal authority governing all the operations of the universe. Since the Mandate of Heaven was expressed by the acceptance of a ruler by the people, Mencius stated that if the people rose up and overthrew a tyrant, it was proof that Heaven had withdrawn its mandate. In the name of Heaven, Mencius claimed for the Chinese people the right of rebellion.

Xunzi took an exactly opposite view of human nature; he asserted that humans have no innate dispositions that are genuinely virtuous. Xunzi was, however, sufficiently optimistic to believe in people’s unlimited capacity for improvement. He taught that through education, the study of the classics, and the practice of ritual, virtue could be acquired and order could be reestablished in society. Xunzi also argued that ritual practices are for the sake of shaping and expressing human emotions rather than influencing Heaven or ancestral spirits.

The differences between Mencius and Xunzi might be summed up as follows. Mencius thought virtue was something that must be developed, as a tree grows from a sprout. Xunzi thought that human beings must be reshaped, as a piece of wood is carved into a useful object. See also Confucianism.

B

Daoism and Other Important Schools

The second great philosophy of the classical age was Daoism (Taoism). The traditional view is that Daoism was founded by Laozi (Lao-tzu), who was presumably a contemporary of Confucius and wrote the Daodejing (“Classic of the Way and Its Virtue”). However, many scholars today believe that there was no single person who wrote the Daodejing, but rather that it is an anthology of sayings by different authors and was composed as late as the 3rd century bc. The Daodejing often talks about the dao (“way”), an entity that both creates the world and determines how things should live. The Daodejing suggests that the virtues and culture celebrated by Confucius and his followers are in reality artificial corruptions of the original simplicity of the dao. If humans followed the dao, they would live in peace and contentment in simple agrarian communities, according to the Daodejing.

The Daodejing is one of the most widely translated and admired texts in the world. But many people believe that another Daoist text, the Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu), is a greater work of philosophy and literature. The Zhuangzi is named after its author, the scholar Zhuangzi, who wrote in the 4th century bc. This work agrees with the Daodejing that human civilization is an artificial creation that does not correspond to reality. But it maintains that one can see through this artificiality and be freed from concerns over profit and loss, and life and death, while still participating in ordinary society.

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