Sculpture

C

Mesopotamian Sculpture

Mesopotamian art includes several civilizations: Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian (see Mesopotamian Art and Architecture). About 2600 bc the Sumerians carved small marble deities noted for their wide, staring eyes. Other details—hair, facial expression, body, clothing—were schematically treated with little interest in achieving a likeness. These qualities remained characteristic of later Mesopotamian sculpture. The Mesopotamians were also fond of portraying animals and did so with great skill, as can be seen on palace gates and reliefs on walls during the Assyrian period (1000-612 bc, examples in British Museum, London, and Metropolitan Museum, New York City).

D

Aegean and Greek Sculpture

Aegean art includes Minoan sculpture, such as terra-cotta and ivory statuettes of goddesses, and Mycenaean works, consisting of small carved ivory deities. The Greeks, masters of stone carving and bronze casting, created some of the greatest sculpture known. Working on a monumental scale, they brought depiction of the human form to perfection between the 7th and 1st centuries bc. In the earliest period, the Archaic, figures appeared rigid and bodies were schematized along geometric lines, as in Egyptian art. By the Classical period, in the 5th and 4th centuries bc, however, naturalism was attained; figures were well proportioned and shown in movement, although faces remained immobile. Gods and athletes were favorite subjects during this period; the most famous sculptors were Phidias, Polyclitus, Praxiteles, and Lysippus. Highly esteemed is the architectural sculpture made for the Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens, such as Three Goddesses (British Museum), whose rhythmically swirling drapery clings to their reclining bodies. During the Hellenistic period (4th-1st century bc), works became increasingly expressive, as reflected in the facial features and complicated body positions. The Nike of Samothráki, or Winged Victory (190? bc, Louvre, Paris), is a highly dramatic masterpiece from this time. See Aegean Civilization; Greek Art and Architecture.

E

Etruscan and Roman Sculpture

The Etruscans, who inhabited the area of Italy between Florence and Rome from the 8th to the 3rd century bc, made life-size terra-cotta sculptures portraying the gods; they also depicted themselves, in reclining positions, on the lids of terra-cotta sarcophagi (coffins). Superb bronze sculptures were also created, such as the She-Wolf (500? bc, Museo Capitolino, Rome), which became the symbol of Rome.

The Romans were avid collectors and imitators of Greek sculpture, and modern historians are indebted to their copies for knowledge of lost Greek originals. Their distinctive contribution to the art of sculpture was realistic portraiture, in which they recorded even the homeliest facial details. The Romans’ sense of the importance of historic events is evident in many sculptured commemorative monuments in Rome, such as the Arch of Titus (ad 81?), Trajan’s Column (106?-113 AD), and the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius (175?); the last- named became the prototype for most later equestrian sculptures. See Etruscan Civilization: Art and Architecture; Roman Art and Architecture.

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F

Early Christian Sculpture

Surviving examples of Early Christian sculpture date from the 4th century; these works stylistically no longer corresponded to the classical ideal of beauty. The carved marble sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (ad 359, Grotte Vaticane, Rome) portrays ten biblical scenes; its figures are oddly proportioned, wearing drapery that falls in rather monotonous folds. This style—sometimes called Late Antique—is perhaps the result of influences from invading Germanic tribes and may be the work of less skilled artists; in general, as the centuries passed, sculpture had a diminished role because of the biblical prohibition of graven images. Instead of life- size statuary, small-scale sculptures were made: portable ivory altarpieces, diptychs (two hinged panels of carved ivory), or little enameled caskets in the Byzantine style. The latter are exemplified by the Limburg Reliquary (Limburg an der Lahn, Germany), a 10th-century container made of silver gilt, jewels, and enamel. Sculpture remained an art of surface ornament until later in the Middle Ages. See Early Christian Art and Architecture ; Byzantine Art and Architecture.

G

Scandinavian and Carolingian Sculpture

During the early Middle Ages in northern Europe, particularly from the 9th to the 12th century, Scandinavian artisans were masters of metalwork and woodcarving. The prow posts and sternposts of Viking ships, sleds, and other objects of daily use were decorated with figures of animals that were transformed into semiabstract linear patterns. The Norwegian stave churches (11th and 12th centuries) are profusely decorated in carved wood of the same design. This style, combining organic and abstract shapes, was also important in Celtic-Germanic art (see Celts: Art; Irish Art), as seen in an 8th-century relief (possibly a book cover) displaying a primitive crucifixion scene (National Museum of Ireland, Dublin).

Little sculpture has survived from the Carolingian period, despite Charlemagne’s great interest in the arts and his revival of classicism. A 9th-century bronze statuette depicting him on a horse, with his crown, sword, and imperial globe, is evidence of knowledge of Roman sculpture. A bejeweled gold book cover for the Lindau Gospels depicting the crucifixion (870? AD, Pierpont Morgan Library, New York City) also shows classical rather than Celtic-Germanic influences.