Frederick II (of Prussia)

I

Introduction

Frederick II (of Prussia), called The Great (1712-1786), king of Prussia (1740-1786); during his reign, he was considered among the most notable of enlightened despots in 18th century Europe.

Frederick was born in Berlin on January 24, 1712, son of King Frederick William I and grandson of Frederick I. As crown prince he was trained, under his father’s supervision, to become a soldier and a thrifty administrator. Frederick, however, encouraged by his mother, Sophia Dorothea of Hannover, and his tutors, showed a preference for courtly life, music, and French literature. Frederick William, failing to understand the tastes of his son, developed an open dislike for him. At the age of 18, Frederick decided to escape to England; his proposed plan was discovered, and he was arrested, imprisoned, temporarily deprived of his status as crown prince, and forced to witness the execution of one of his two confederates. After he had subsequently applied himself diligently to fiscal and military affairs and had consented to a marriage in 1733 with Elizabeth Christine, daughter of Ferdinand Albert II of Brunswick, Frederick was reinstated to his position as crown prince. He then went to live for seven years on his estate at Rheinsburg, where, in his leisure time, he studied philosophy, history, and poetry and corresponded with the French philosophers, notably Voltaire. In his Antimachiavell, written during that period and published by Voltaire in 1740, Frederick idealistically opposed the political doctrines of the Italian statesman and philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli, favoring peaceful and enlightened rule.

II

King and Military Leader

On the death of his father in 1740 Frederick became king and embarked almost immediately on a policy of Prussian aggrandizement. When Maria Theresa became archduchess of Austria in that same year, Frederick demanded the cession of duchies of Silesia in return for Prussian recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction, which gave the Austrian Habsburg dominions to Maria Theresa. Refused by Austria, Frederick invaded Silesia, beginning the War of the Austrian Succession. He led his forces to victory at Mollwitz in 1741 and at Chotusitz in 1742; in the latter year, by the Treaty of Breslau, Maria Theresa was obliged to yield the Silesian territory demanded by Prussia. Frederick acquired East Friesland (now a region of Germany) in 1744, on the death of the last ruler without heirs of that principality. In 1745 he fought and won a second war with Austria, terminated by the Peace of Dresden, which assured Prussia the possession of Silesia.

By this time Frederick was recognized as an able military leader, and the position of Prussia in Europe had risen considerably. The military greatness of Frederick was demonstrated during the Seven Years’ War, fought from 1756 to 1763. Frederick and his forces, aided only by financial assistance from Britain, which was at war with France, opposed the armies of Austria, Russia, Sweden, Saxony (Sachsen), and France. The Peace of Hubertusburg in 1763 awarded Prussia no new territory, as it merely confirmed the boundaries that had existed before the war; at the end of the war, however, Prussia was established as a rival to Austria for domination of the German states.

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Frederick made an alliance with Catherine II of Russia, in 1764, and by the first partition of Poland in 1772 he received Polish Prussia, exclusive of Gdańsk (Danzig) and Toruń (Thorn), thus uniting the regions of Brandenburg and Pomerania. By the Treaty of Teschen in 1779, after the War of the Bavarian Succession, a short conflict with Austria, Prussia was awarded the Franconian principalities of Bavaria; Austria retained only a part of Lower Bavaria. A further step was made toward destroying Austrian dominance in 1785, when Frederick gathered the German princes into a union of princes, the Fürstenbund, to preserve the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire.

III

Administrator

Frederick was extremely sympathetic to the American Revolution and was an admirer of George Washington. He was one of the first sovereigns to conclude a commercial treaty with the United States. He did not, however, limit his activities to the international scene; internal affairs flourished during his reign. His rule was absolute; he was a ubiquitous administrator, constantly checking the work of his officials, from whom he exacted the utmost in conscientiousness. Under his rule new methods of agriculture and manufacturing were introduced. Marshes were drained, providing new lands for cultivation and colonization, and the institution of serfdom, while not abolished, was somewhat liberalized. Under Frederick’s personal supervision the efficiency and size of the army were increased. He reviewed the troops frequently, concerned himself with the discipline of his officers and men, and wrote works for his generals on the science of warfare. In 1747 Frederick, who was particularly interested in the equitable distribution of justice to all classes, issued a new codification of Prussian law, the Codex Fridericianus.

IV

Patron of Culture

Frederick continued to patronize the arts and sciences throughout his life. The Academy of Sciences again became an important center of learning during his reign, and elementary education progressed as under no previous Prussian sovereign. In his favorite residence, the palace of Sans Souci, Frederick held court, but always entertained with judicious economy. Contemptuous of the German language and culture, Frederick spoke French at court and patronized French writers, many of whom, including Voltaire, paid him visits in Berlin. Frederick himself was a musician, spending many hours with his flute. He was also a prolific writer; his complete works were published in 30 volumes between 1846 and 1857. He died at Sans Souci on August 17, 1786.

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