Atom

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Particle Traps

Studying single atoms or small samples of atoms can help scientists understand atomic structure. However, all atoms, even atoms that are part of a solid material, are constantly in motion. This constant motion makes them difficult to examine. To study single atoms, scientists must slow the atoms down and confine them to one place. Scientists can slow and trap atoms using devices called particle traps.

Slowing down atoms is actually the same as cooling them. This is because an atom’s rate of motion is directly related to its temperature. Atoms that are moving very quickly cause a substance to have a high temperature. Atoms moving more slowly create a lower temperature. Scientists therefore build traps that cool atoms down to a very low temperature.

Several different types of particle traps exist. Some traps are designed to slow down ions, while others are designed to slow electrically neutral atoms. Traps for ions often use electric and magnetic fields to influence the movement of the particle, confining it in a small space or slowing it down. Traps for neutral atoms often use lasers, beams of light in which the light waves are uniform and consistent. Light has no mass, but it moves so quickly that it does have momentum. This property allows the light to affect other particles, or “bump” into them. When laser light collides with atoms, the momentum of the light forces the atoms to change speed and direction.

Scientists use trapped and cooled atoms for a variety of experiments, including those that precisely measure the properties of individual atoms and those in which scientists construct extremely accurate atomic clocks. Atomic clocks keep track of time by counting waves of radiation emitted by atoms in traps inside the clock. Because the traps hold the atoms at low temperatures, the mechanisms inside the clock can exercise more control over the atom, reducing the possibility of error. Scientists can also use isolated atoms to measure the force of gravity in an area with extreme accuracy. These measurements are useful in oil exploration, among other things. A deposit of oil or other substance beneath Earth’s surface has a different density than the material surrounding it. The strength of the pull of gravity in an area depends on the density of material in the area, so these changes in density produce changes in the local strength of gravity. Advances in the manipulation of atoms have also raised the possibility of using atoms to etch electronic circuits. This would help make the circuits smaller and thereby allow more circuits to fit in a tinier area.

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In 1995 American physicists used particle traps to cool a sample of rubidium atoms to a temperature near absolute zero (-273°C, or –459°F). Absolute zero is the temperature at which all motion stops. When the scientists cooled the rubidium atoms to such a low temperature, the atoms slowed almost to a stop. The scientists knew that the momentum of the atoms, which is related to their speed, was close to zero. At this point, a special rule of quantum physics, called the uncertainty principle, greatly affected the positions of the atoms. This rule states that the momentum and position of a particle both cannot have precise values at the same time. The scientists had a fairly precise value for the atom’s momentum (nearly zero), so the positions of the atoms became very imprecise. The position of each atom could be described as a large, fuzzy cloud of probability. The atoms were very close together in the trap, so the probability clouds of many atoms overlapped one another. It was impossible for the scientists to tell where one atom ended and another began. In effect, the atoms formed one huge particle. This new state of matter is called a Bose-Einstein condensate.

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Spectroscopes

Spectroscopy is the study of the radiation, or energy, that atoms, ions, molecules, and atomic nuclei emit. This emitted energy is usually in the form of electromagnetic radiation—vibrating electric and magnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves can have a variety of wavelengths, including those of visible light. X rays, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation are also forms of electromagnetic radiation. Scientists use spectroscopes to measure this emitted radiation.

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Characteristic Radiation of Atoms

Atoms emit radiation when their electrons lose energy and drop down to lower orbitals, or energy states, as described in the Electron Energy Levels section above. The difference in energy between the orbitals determines the wavelength of the emitted radiation. This radiation can be in the form of visible light for outer electrons, or it can be radiation of shorter wavelengths, such as X-ray radiation, for inner electrons. Because the energies of the orbitals are strictly defined and differ from element to element, atoms of a particular element can only emit certain wavelengths of radiation. By studying the wavelengths of radiation emitted by a substance, scientists can identify the element or elements comprising the substance. For example, the outer electrons in a sodium atom emit a characteristic yellow light when they return to lower orbitals. This is why street lamps that use sodium vapor have a yellowish glow (See also Sodium-Vapor Lamp).

Chemists often use a procedure called a flame test to identify elements. In a flame test, the chemist burns a sample of the element. The heat excites the outer electrons in the element’s atoms, making the electrons jump to higher energy orbitals. When the electrons drop back down to their original orbitals, they emit light characteristic of that element. This light colors the flame and allows the chemist to identify the element.

The inner electrons of atoms also emit radiation that can help scientists identify elements. The energy it takes to boost an inner electron to a higher orbital is directly related to the positive charge of the nucleus and the pull this charge exerts on the electron. When the electron drops back to its original level, it emits the same amount of energy it absorbed, so the emitted energy is also related to the nucleus’s charge. The charge on the nucleus is equal to the atom’s atomic number.

Scientists measure the energy of the emitted radiation by measuring the radiation’s wavelength. The radiation’s energy is directly related to its wavelength, which usually resembles that of an X ray for the inner electrons. By measuring the wavelength of the radiation that an atom’s inner electron emits, scientists can identify the atom by its atomic number. Scientists used this method in the 1910s to identify the atomic number of the elements and to place the elements in their correct order in the periodic table. The method is still used today to identify particularly heavy elements (those with atomic numbers greater than 100) that are produced a few atoms at a time in large accelerators (see Transuranium Elements).

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Radiation Released by Radioactivity

Atomic nuclei emit radiation when they undergo radioactive decay, as discussed in the Radioactivity section above. Nuclei usually emit radiation with very short wavelengths (and therefore high energy) when they decay. Often this radiation is in the form of gamma rays, a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths even shorter than X rays. Once again, nuclei of different elements emit radiation of characteristic wavelengths. Scientists can identify nuclei by measuring this radiation. This method is especially useful in neutron activation analysis, a technique scientists use for identifying the presence of tiny amounts of elements. Scientists bombard samples that they wish to identify with neutrons. Some of the neutrons join the nuclei, making them radioactive. When the nuclei decay, they emit radiation that allows the scientists to identify the substance. Environmental scientists use neutron activation analysis in studying air and water pollution. Forensic scientists, who study evidence related to crimes, use this technique to identify gunshot residue and traces of poisons.

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Particle Accelerators

Particle accelerators are devices that increase the speed of a beam of elementary particles such as protons and electrons. Scientists use the accelerated beam to study collisions between particles. The beam can collide with a target of stationary particles, or it can collide with another accelerated beam of particles moving in the opposite direction. If physicists use the nucleus of an atom as the target, the particles and radiation produced in the collision can help them learn about the nucleus. The faster the particles move, the higher the energy they contain. If collisions occur at very high energy, it is possible to create particles never before detected. In certain circumstances, energy can be converted to matter, resulting in heavier particles after the collision.

Cyclotrons and linear accelerators are two of the most important kinds of particle accelerators. In a cyclotron, a magnetic field holds a beam of charged particles in a circular path. An electric field interacts with the particles’ electric charge to give them a boost of energy and speed each time the beam goes around. In linear accelerators, charged particles move in a straight line. They receive many small boosts of energy from electric fields as they move through the accelerator.

Bombarding nuclei with beams of neutrons forces the nuclei to absorb some of the neutrons and become unstable. The unstable nuclei then decay radioactively. The way atoms decay tells scientists about the original structure of the atom. Scientists can also deduce the size and shape of nuclei from the way particles scatter from nuclei when they collide. Another use of particle accelerators is to create new and exotic isotopes, including atoms of elements with very high atomic numbers that are not found in nature.

At higher energy levels, using particles moving at much higher speeds, scientists can use accelerators to look inside protons and neutrons to examine their internal structure. At these energy levels, accelerators can produce new types of particles. Some of these particles are similar to protons or neutrons but have larger masses and are very unstable. Others have a structure similar to the pion, the particle that is exchanged between the proton and neutron as part of the strong force that binds the nucleus together. By creating new particles and studying their properties, physicists have been able to deduce their common internal structure and to classify them using the theory of quarks. High-energy collisions between one particle and another often produce hundreds of particles. Experimenters have the challenging task of identifying and measuring all of these particles, some of which exist for only the tiniest fraction of a second.