United States House of Representatives

B

Campaigning for the House

Most representatives start their political careers in state or local government before they run for election to the House. These years of experience give them time to become familiar with issues affecting their districts, and it gives voters a chance to learn about the candidates.

Once they have demonstrated their leadership skills in local or state government, House candidates must find a way to raise enough money to run an effective campaign. The large size of the districts today makes it difficult and expensive to win election to the House. Most House campaigns rely on radio and television advertisements to reach voters. This television and radio time is very costly. Most campaigns also rely on direct-mail campaign leaflets sent directly to voters. Advertisements and direct mail are usually the largest expenses in running for a House seat. In 2000 the average winning House candidate spent $832,000 on his or her campaign. (U.S. Senate elections are usually even more expensive than House races because Senate candidates must try to win votes across an entire state. In 2000 the average winning Senate campaign spent more than $7 million, mostly on television and radio advertisements.)

The high cost of campaigns influences who wins House elections and how representatives act when they are in office. Incumbents—those who already have seats in the House—have a strong fund-raising advantage because donors tend to favor candidates who have shown that they can win an election. Although incumbents usually have a head start in campaigns because it is easier for them to raise money, incumbency can be a disadvantage if voters believe that their representatives have lost touch or are putting their careers ahead of the people they represent.

Because of the high cost of elections and the short two-year term of office, members of the House campaign almost constantly. They spend much of their time raising campaign funds, and they frequently return to their districts to keep in touch with voters. Because the elections are so frequent, House members tend to pay close attention to how their votes in Congress will be seen in the short term.

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House members tend to come from wealthier family backgrounds than average Americans. Few working class people—those who work for others and receive an hourly wage—win election to the House. Racial discrimination has also been a barrier to House membership. Historically, African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans have been underrepresented in the House. Racial minorities have gained more seats in the House in recent decades as a result of the civil rights movement, but the proportion of minorities in the House still falls well short of their proportion in the population as a whole. Women have also found it difficult to win election to the House, holding fewer than 4 percent of the seats from the early 20th century through the 1980s. However, women have recently broken new ground; in the 107th Congress (2001-2003), 61 women served in the House, giving them 14 percent of the chamber’s seats.

C

Responsibilities

Representatives constantly juggle lawmaking, tending to the concerns of voters, and campaign work. In Washington, D.C., members are expected to study and discuss proposed laws, attend committee meetings, attend floor debate or follow it on television, and cast votes in the chamber. To serve their constituents, they meet with citizens in Washington, D.C., or in the home district, communicate by mail or media, oversee their staffs, and help citizens deal with the federal agencies. Most return as often as possible to their home districts.

Members are given funds and up to 18 staff aides to help with these tasks. In addition to space in one of three House office buildings on Capitol Hill, most members maintain one or more offices in their districts—mainly to handle citizens’ requests and problems. In 2001 House members were paid a base salary of $145,100 per year. They also received a housing allowance and reimbursement for travel expenses.

IV

The Work of the House

A

Powers

The House of Representatives, combined with the Senate, is the world’s most powerful legislature. Acting in tandem, the two chambers rarely accept legislation proposed by the president without debating and amending it. The two chambers can, and often do, reject the president’s pet proposals. They frequently write and pass legislation that the president opposes, daring the chief executive either to veto it or seek a compromise.

The Constitution gives Congress “all legislative powers” of the national government. The House and Senate share most of these powers. This includes the broad enumerated (listed) powers in Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution—for example, coining money, regulating interstate and foreign commerce, raising and equipping a military, and declaring war. The Constitution also gives the chambers implied powers—to carry out the enumerated powers and to investigate and oversee the executive branch. The House and the Senate share most lawmaking powers. Bills must clear both chambers in exactly the same form before they are sent to the president for approval or veto.

The House has special authority over taxing and spending. In opposing British rule, Americans had protested “taxation without representation.” Mindful of this complaint, the framers of the Constitution required that all tax laws begin in the House of Representatives—the chamber that most closely represents the people. By custom, all laws that authorize the government to spend money originate there as well. The House also has the sole power to initiate impeachment proceedings against the president and other high officials, but the Senate conducts the trial.

The House lacks two specific powers granted to the Senate. Only the Senate can approve treaties negotiated and submitted by the president. However, the House has the power to withhold funding to carry out the agreements, and thus has leverage over many treaties. The Senate also has sole power to confirm cabinet members and other key government officers. Because these officials work on policies such as housing and agriculture that fall under House control, however, they must work with committees in both chambers once in office.

B

The Committee System

Because of its large size, nearly all of the House’s most important legislative decisions are made by specialized committees and subcommittees. Most are permanent legislative committees (usually called standing committees) with control over a particular subject area, such as agriculture or the military. Legislative committees and subcommittees hold hearings on pressing issues, direct research staffs, and draft legislation. The committees then make legislative recommendations to the House as a whole. In most cases, the House supports the recommendations of its committees. A committee may choose not to act on a bill, which effectively scuttles the proposal. Legislative committees also oversee the executive agencies related to their area of specialization.

The House also establishes joint committees to collaborate with the Senate. Joint committees include members of both the House and the Senate. They are created to investigate specific problems, but lack the authority to report out (recommend) legislative action. The House sometimes creates special investigative committees, usually called select committees, to delve into specific problems, such as corruption in a government agency. Most select committees also lack the power to report out legislation.

The number of committees and subcommittees changes somewhat from year to year. In 1997, for example, the House had 19 standing, or permanent, committees, which in turn had nearly 90 subcommittees. Key House panels include the Appropriations Committee, which recommends annual spending amounts; the Ways and Means Committee, which considers revenue measures; the Commerce Committee, which oversees the regulation of many industries; the Budget Committee, which prepares the annual budget; and the Rules Committee, which helps the Speaker schedule bills by issuing special rules governing amendments, debates, and voting procedures. Other committees handle such topics as natural resources, national security, foreign affairs, and education. On average, each House member sits on two committees and three subcommittees.

C

The Speaker and Other Leaders

The party with the most seats in the House selects a Speaker of the House, who presides over the chamber and leads the majority party. The Speaker refers bills to committees, appoints members to special committees, and grants members the right to speak during chamber debates. The Speaker does not usually vote on bills except in the case of ties. With the help of deputies, the Speaker also influences committee assignments, oversees committee handling of bills, and schedules bills for debate and voting by the House. This control over committee assignments and scheduling gives the Speaker considerable influence over which laws are eventually approved by the chamber. Because more laws originate in the House than in the Senate, the Speaker of the House can have a decisive impact on the laws of the United States. The broad powers make the Speaker the most prominent person in Congress. Some Speakers, such as Republican Newt Gingrich and Democrat Jim Wright, used the position to launch bold political initiatives and to push their parties in new directions. When the Republicans took over the House in 1995, they initially accorded Speaker Gingrich enormous power, but at the same time voted to impose a rule that limits any individual to eight years as Speaker. Subsequently the Speaker’s powers were cut back in relation to the powers of committee leaders.

House majority and minority parties each choose their own officers, including a floor leader and assistants called whips. These officers try to organize their party members to support or oppose legislative proposals. Whips are usually selected from among the most experienced members of the House. Majority party members also chair and hold a majority of seats on the House’s standing committees and subcommittees.

The Sergeant at Arms and the Clerk of the House ensure that the chamber works smoothly. The Sergeant at Arms is not a representative, but is elected to the position by the House membership. The Sergeant at Arms maintains order in the House under the supervision of the Speaker, and is nominally responsible for summoning members onto the floor when a quorum is necessary. The Sergeant at Arms also arranges joint sessions of Congress, visits from foreign dignitaries, and other ceremonial events. During important official events, the Sergeant at Arms carries a large wooden mace made of ebony and silver that symbolizes the power of the office. The Sergeant at Arms and the associated staff also supply House members with office equipment and other supplies.

The Office of the Clerk of the House manages the day-to-day legislative activity of the chamber, recording the results of floor votes and documenting the approval of bills. The Clerk and the Clerk’s assistants also supervise research for House members, certify that members have been elected according to the provisions of the Constitution, and oversee enforcement of laws regulating House ethics and elections. Like the Sergeant at Arms, the Clerk is elected by the House membership.