Geographic Exploration

VII

Exploration in the Modern World

In the 20th century imperialism waned and ceased being an impetus for exploration. Although most regions of the world had been explored by the early 20th century, two factors continue to spur further exploration to this day. First is zeal for adventure: Sporting expeditions have climbed the highest peaks, kayaked down the white water of river gorges, hang-glided into volcanic craters and forest canopies, ballooned across oceans, and ventured deep into unexplored caves all over the world. Second is scientific curiosity: Scientists still seek to discover all the biological and physical wonders of our planet. Discoveries are coming thick and fast in every realm of science, transforming people’s understanding of the processes that govern the world and its amazing range of plant and animal life. However, these findings are largely made by unpublicized teams rather than famous individuals. Their successes result from months or years of tough fieldwork, often followed by lengthy laboratory analysis. Every year an increasing number of scientific expeditions go into the field.

A

Mountain Climbing

Interest in mountain climbing grew after the first ascent of Mont Blanc, the highest peak of the Alps, in 1786. Since then, mountaineers have been scaling peaks around the globe. Mountaineering’s ultimate challenge was the summit of Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world. After British climbers George Leigh Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared close to the summit in 1924, some experts claimed that it was physically impossible for human beings to climb Everest. They were proved wrong in 1953 when Edmund Hillary, a climber from New Zealand, and Nepalese Sherpa Tenzing Norgay successfully fought their way to the summit. Since 1953 every ridge of Everest has been climbed, photographed, or mapped.

B

The Seas

More than 70 percent of Earth is covered by oceans, but only since the mid-20th century have humans possessed the technology to explore beneath the surface of the water. Since then, scientists have explored the ocean floors to learn how underwater currents and marine organisms affect the weather, atmosphere, and species survival on Earth. For example, it was the exploration of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge by scientists such as American oceanographer Robert Ballard that finally demonstrated the reality of plate tectonics—the most important breakthrough in geological thinking of recent decades. Other scientists are revealing the millions of species of fish and other marine species that inhabit the waters. In 1960 Swiss oceanographer Jacques Piccard piloted a submersible to the lowest point of the sea floor ever reached, achieving the depth of 10,915 m (35,810 ft) below sea level in the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific Ocean. (For more information, See Deep-Sea Exploration.)

On the surface of the seas, 20th-century navigators have led epic voyages. Norwegian anthropologist Thor Heyerdahl made several voyages using ancient boatbuilding and navigation technologies to demonstrate possible historic migration routes. In 1947 Heyerdahl and his small crew thrilled the world by sailing his balsa raft Kon-Tiki 6,920 km (4,300 mi) across the Pacific. More recently, British historian Tim Severin recreated several legendary voyages, such as the journey of Jason and the Argonauts, in replicas of historic boats. In 1967 British navigator Francis Chichester made the first solo circumnavigation of the globe in his yacht.

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C

Deserts

In the first half of the 20th century British explorers Harry Philby, Bertram Thomas, and Wilfred Thesiger made several expeditions into one of the most forbidding and least-explored places on Earth, the fiery sands of the Rub al’Khali (Empty Quarter) of Arabia. Numerous scientific expeditions have since been mounted in the world’s deserts to discover the dynamics of sand dunes, the geological formations of desert regions, the paleontological and archaeological evidence of early human beings, and the life cycles of desert creatures.

D

Tropical Rain Forests

In recent years, many biological discoveries have been made in the world’s stands of tropical rain forest. The rain forest is the world’s richest ecosystem, containing perhaps half of the 10 million or more species with which people share the planet. Botanists have penetrated isolated forests in search of plants, while entomologists are constantly discovering new insect species. Ecologists are studying the dynamics of the nutrient and water cycles that nourish tropical forests, and environmentalists have investigated the vital role those systems play in maintaining life on Earth.

The Amazon Basin of South America contains one third of the world’s tropical forests. Its greatest explorers in the 20th century have been Brazilians, who have also championed that country’s indigenous peoples. In the first half of the century Brazilian army officer Cândido Rondon discovered and surveyed more great rivers and contacted more isolated tribes than anyone before or since.

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