Alcohol

I

Introduction

Alcohol, member of a group of certain chemical compounds and, in popular usage, the specific compound ethyl alcohol, or ethanol. Alcohols in different forms have played important roles as beverages, disinfectants, solvents, preservatives, fuels, and industrial chemicals.

The word alcohol comes from the Arabic word al-kuhul, which denoted kohl, a fine powder of antimony used as an eye makeup. The word alcohol itself originally denoted any fine powder. The alchemists of medieval Europe later applied the term alcohol to essences obtained by distillation, leading to the current usage for a liquid substance.

Alcohols are a class of organic compounds containing the hydrogen and oxygen hydroxyl group, OH, attached to a carbon atom. Alcohols have one, two, or three hydroxyl groups attached to their molecules and are thus classified as monohydric, dihydric, or trihydric, respectively. Methanol and ethanol are monohydric alcohols. Alcohols are further classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary, according to whether one, two, or three other carbon atoms are bound to the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is bound. Alcohols, although analogous to inorganic bases, are neither acid nor alkaline. They are characterized by many common reactions, the most important of which is the reaction with acids to form substances called esters, which are analogous to inorganic salts. Alcohols are normal by-products of digestion and chemical processes within cells and are found in the tissues and fluids of animals and plants.

II

Wood Alcohol

Methyl alcohol, or methanol, CH₃OH, is the simplest of all the alcohols. It was formerly made by the destructive distillation of wood; however, almost all of the methanol produced today is synthetic, made from hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Methanol is used as a denaturant for grain alcohol (see below), as an antifreeze, as a solvent for gums and lacquers, and in the synthesis of many organic compounds, particularly formaldehyde. When taken internally, by either drinking the liquid or inhaling the vapors, methanol is extremely poisonous. Methanol melts at -97.8°C (-144.0°F), boils at 64.7°C (148.5°F), and has a specific gravity of 0.7915 at 20°C (68°F).

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III

Grain Alcohol

Ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, C₂H₅OH, is a clear, colorless liquid, with a burning taste and characteristic, agreeable odor. Ethanol is the alcohol in such beverages as beer, wine, and brandy. Because of its low freezing point, it has been used as the fluid in thermometers for temperatures below -40°C (-40°F), the freezing point of mercury, and for other special low-temperature purposes, such as for antifreeze in automobile radiators.

Ethanol is normally concentrated by distillation of dilute solutions. Commercial ethanol contains 95 percent by volume of ethanol and 5 percent of water. Dehydrating agents remove the remaining water and produce absolute ethanol. Ethanol melts at -114.1°C (-173.4°F), boils at 78.5°C (173.3°F), and has a specific gravity of 0.789 at 20°C (68°F).

Ethanol has been made since ancient times by the fermentation of sugars. All beverage ethanol, most biofuel ethanol, and some industrial ethanol is still made by this process. Starch from potatoes, corn, or other cereals can be the raw material. The yeast enzyme, zymase, changes the simple sugars into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The fermentation reaction, represented by the simple equation

C6H12O6→ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

is actually very complex because impure cultures of yeast produce varying amounts of other substances, including fusel oil, glycerin, and various organic acids. The fermented liquid, containing from 7 to 12 percent ethanol, is concentrated to 95 percent by a series of distillations. In the production of beverages such as whiskey and brandy, some of the impurities, which supply the flavor, are of great value. Much ethanol for industrial use can be made synthetically, either from acetaldehyde made from acetylene, or from ethylene made from petroleum. Efforts continue to find ways to derive ethanol for biofuel from wood pulp, plant waste, and other nonfood organic materials.

Ethanol can be oxidized to form first acetaldehyde and then acetic acid. It can be dehydrated to form ether. Other products made from ethanol include butadiene, used in making synthetic rubber; ethyl choride, used as a local anesthetic; and many other organic chemicals. Ethanol can also be mixed with gasoline to form the automobile fuel called gasohol. Ethanol is miscible (mixable) in all proportions with water and with most organic solvents. It is an excellent solvent for many substances and is used in making such products as perfumes, lacquer, celluloid, and explosives. Alcoholic solutions of nonvolatile substances are called tinctures; if the solute is volatile, the solution is called a spirit.

Most industrial ethanol is denatured to prevent its use as a beverage. Denaturing involves mixing ethanol with small amounts of poisonous or unpleasant substances to make the ethanol undrinkable. The removal of all these substances would involve a series of treatments more expensive than the federal excise tax on alcoholic beverages.

Consumption of ethanol as a beverage is associated with a number of health issues. Research indicates that regular, moderate consumption of some wines may have possible medical benefits in reducing heart disease. However, excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages can lead to weight gain and damage to major organs in the body, including the heart, the liver, and the brain. It may also increase the risk of certain cancers. Dependence on alcohol can lead to alcoholism. Consuming alcohol during pregnancy can result in birth of a baby with fetal alcohol syndrome.

Although alcoholic beverages are often drunk to enhance a feeling of relaxation and sociability, alcohol acts as a depressant on the central nervous system. Alcohol intoxication can seriously impair motor skills, judgment, and brain function. Driving under the influence of alcohol can result in accidents, injury, and death. Risky behaviors such as unprotected sex and violent acts such as fighting or domestic abuse are more common in an intoxicated state. Drinking large quantities of alcohol in a short period of time can result in unconsciousness or even death by suppressing breathing, blood circulation, and brain function.

IV

Higher Alcohols

Higher alcohols, those of greater molecular weight than ethyl alcohol, have many specific and general uses. Isopropyl alcohol is used extensively as a rubbing alcohol, butyl alcohol is a base for perfumes and fixatives, and others are important flavoring agents and perfumes. Polyhydric alcohols, those containing more than one 8OH group, are also important—as, for example, the trihydric alcohol known as glycerol.

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