Circumcision

I

Introduction

Circumcision, surgical removal of all or part of the foreskin of the human male or of the corresponding tissues of the female. Circumcision of males has been widely practiced as a religious rite since ancient times. An initiatory rite of Judaism, circumcision is also practiced by Muslims (see Islam), for whom it signifies spiritual purification. Although its origins are unknown, earliest evidence of the practice dates from ancient Egypt. By the time of the Roman takeover of Egypt in 30 bc, the practice had a ritual significance, and only circumcised priests could perform certain religious offices.

II

Tribal Rites

Male circumcision appears widely among tribal peoples of Africa, the Malay Archipelago, New Guinea, Australia, and the Pacific islands. Some form of genital surgery was ritually performed on males or females among certain South and Central Native American groups.

In tribal settings, circumcision is nearly always associated with traumatic puberty rites (see Rites of Passage). Occasionally the severed part is offered as a sacrifice to spirit beings. The operation certifies the subject's readiness for marriage and adulthood and testifies to his or her ability to withstand pain. Circumcision may also distinguish cultural groups from their uncircumcised neighbors.

III

Religious Rites

In Jewish religious tradition, infant male circumcision is required as part of Abraham's covenant with God. According to the Levitical law (see Levites; Leviticus), every Jewish male infant had to be circumcised on the eighth day after birth, under penalty of ostracism from the congregation of Israel. Jews employ a mohel, a man who has the requisite surgical skill and religious knowledge to perform the rite. After a ritual prayer, the mohel circumcises the infant and then names and blesses the child.

---

---

Among the Arabs, circumcision existed before the time of Muhammad (before ad 570). Although the Qur'an (Koran) does not mention it, Islamic custom demands that Muslim males be circumcised before marriage; the rite is generally performed in infancy. Some Islamic peoples practice female circumcision (clitoridectomy). This is done for aesthetic reasons and to reduce the female’s sexual desires.

In some Mediterranean and Islamic countries, clitoridectomy can be an aspect of family honor. In cases where female chastity is a matter of respectability, public evidence of a bride’s lost virginity is an important sequel to marriage: a woman who is unable to demonstrate that she has lost her virginity to her new husband may be divorced or, in extreme instances, put to death by her own family.

Circumcision is absent from the Hindu-Buddhist and Confucian traditions, and in general the Christian church has no specific doctrine about it. At present the Abyssinian church alone among Christian bodies recognizes circumcision as a religious rite. See also Hinduism; Buddhism; Confucianism.

IV

Medical Aspects

Since the 19th century, many English-speaking peoples have adopted the custom of circumcision, primarily for medical reasons. In modern medical practice, circumcision of males is a minor operation usually performed in infancy for hygienic purposes. It is currently estimated that about two-thirds of male babies born in the United States are circumcised. The incidence among non-Jewish populations of continental Europe, Scandinavia, and South America is lower.

The medical case for circumcision has been tinged with controversy. Physicians in the 19th century advised the operation for many ailments, including hysteria, sexually transmitted disease, hypersexuality, and even hiccups. Modern proponents suggest that diseases result from the buildup of smegma, a substance secreted under the foreskin. Also cited is evidence that circumcised populations (especially Jews) display lower rates of penile and cervical cancer. Research findings reported in 2006 indicated that circumcision could lower by more than half the risk of contracting AIDS among men who engaged in heterosexual intercourse. The research was conducted in Africa, and experts warned that the findings did not suggest that circumcised men could safely engage in unprotected sex.