Track and Field

V

Timing and Measurements

Timing and measurements are crucial to track and field. During some competitions only a few hundredths of a second or a few centimeters separate the first- and second-place finishers. Events can be timed with basic methods such as a stopwatch, or more advanced timing systems that incorporate videotape and photo finishes. Usually, the higher the level of competition, the more sophisticated the timing systems.

At the lowest levels of competition, such as youth and high school meets, officials start and time events with a starting pistol and handheld stopwatches. One official fires the gun into the air as the starting signal, and other officials or volunteers time each competitor with independent stopwatches. Some competitions at this level use multilane timers. A multilane timer consists of a single electronic system that times all eight runners simultaneously. One official starts the system when the starting pistol is fired. Eight other officials are each assigned to a specific lane and hold a button that is attached to the main unit by a cord. When the runner in their assigned lane crosses the finish line, the lane official presses the button and the runner’s time is recorded. Because of human error, times taken with stopwatches and multilane timers are typically up to a quarter of a second faster than more advanced timing systems. As a result, hand-timed races are not considered accurate enough to measure national, Olympic, or world records in the shorter track events.

In order to set a new national, Olympic, or world record in events shorter than the 400-meter dash, an automatic timing system must be used. This highly accurate system features an electronic starting pistol and a computerized timing device that produces an image of the finish. Most state-of-the-art timing systems use a camera that feeds a stream of digital photographs into a computer. An operator then uses special software to read the times. Older systems use a videotape or conventional photography to record the finish.

Wind is another factor in timing elite events. In the sprints, shorter hurdles races, long jump, and triple jump, any wind that might aid a competitor’s performance is measured. If the wind exceeds 2.0 m (6 ft 6 in) per second, then the mark cannot be considered for record purposes.

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VI

Running Events

Running events are competitions that test athletes’ quickness, speed, and endurance. Athletes win running races by completing the distance or course in the least amount of time.

A

Sprints

The shortest running events, called sprints or dashes, are the premier events at a track-and-field meet. The outdoor sprints consist of the 100-meter, 200-meter, and 400-meter events. Sprints contested at indoor meets include the 50-meter, 60-meter, 200-meter, and 400-meter events. Past champions include Jesse Owens, Wilma Rudolph, Evelyn Ashford, Carl Lewis, Florence Griffith Joyner, and Michael Johnson of the United States; Harold Abrahams and Linford Christie of the United Kingdom; and Donovan Bailey of Canada.

In running the sprints, the athlete crouches at the starting line, leaps into full stride when the official fires the starter's pistol, and races to the finish line at top speed. Sprinters gain traction and power in the start by placing their feet against metal or plastic starting blocks located behind the starting line. The athletes who are fastest coming out of the starting blocks have the advantage. The chief characteristics of an efficient sprinting style are high knee lift, free-swinging arm movements, and a forward lean of about 25 degrees.

Endurance is a major factor in the 400-meter race, because the athlete must maintain a sprint for such a long distance. It is rare for a runner to have both the pure speed and the stamina to compete in both the 100-meter and 400-meter events.

B

Middle Distances

Races ranging from 600 meters to 3,000 meters are known as middle-distance events. The most popular distances are the 800-meter, 1,500-meter, and 3,000-meter runs. The mile run is also a popular event. It is the only nonmetric distance still officially recognized. Outstanding middle-distance performers over the years have included Paavo Nurmi of Finland; Roger Bannister of Britain, who was the first to break the 4-minute barrier in the mile; Jim Ryun of the United States; Sebastian Coe of the United Kingdom; and Noureddine Morceli of Algeria.

Middle-distance runners use a combination of sprint speed and endurance. They must stay in contention but also regulate their speed carefully to avoid tiring too quickly. Some middle-distance runners change speed several times during a race, while others maintain an even pace throughout. Nurmi, who dominated track and field in the 1920s, carried a stopwatch during races as a means of checking on his pace. An important element of middle-distance races is the kick, a sprint for the finish line on the last lap. Running form for middle-distance events differs from that employed in the sprints. Knee action is much less pronounced, the stride is shorter, and the forward lean is less extreme.

C

Long Distances

Runs longer than 3,000 meters are considered distance events. The most common distance races are ones of 5,000 to 10,000 meters, and the marathon, which does not take place on a track but on paved roads over a course of 42 km, 194 m (26 mi, 385 yd). Star long-distance runners have included Ingrid Kristiansen and Grete Waitz of Norway, Emil Zátopek of the former Czechoslovakia, Frank Shorter of the United States, and Haile Gebrselassie of Ethiopia.

Many of the best distance runners are small and light-framed. They use a running style that avoids excess motion. Knee action is slight, arm movements are reduced to a minimum, and the strides are shorter than those used in sprinting or middle-distance running. Although fitness is essential, competing in long distance events also involves careful strategizing. The top racers use a variety of techniques to outperform their opponents, from abrupt changes of pace during the race to fast finishing kicks.

Although cross-country races are not generally held during track-and-field meets, many distance runners compete at cross country during the fall and winter. Cross-country races take place over rough, rolling terrain and can be as long as 14.5 km (9 mi). Because of the varying conditions and sites, no world records are kept for cross-country racing.

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