Zhou Dynasty

IV

Society

The feudal society of the Western Zhou had a pyramidlike structure. The state monopolized the distribution of resources. The nobility was held together in hierarchical lord-vassal relationships, in which the vassals were essentially the property of their lords. The Zhou feudal system, however, overlapped a kinship network that gave many nobles additional patriarchal authority over those of their vassals who were descended from the same lineage as they were. This system applied to the rulers of the vassal states and their noblemen as well. The peasants served the aristocrats by farming specific areas of land for their lord. In exchange, each peasant was assigned an area from which he could grow crops to feed his own household. The feudal class barriers between the nobles and their subjects could not be surmounted easily.

During the Spring and Autumn period, the feudal structure gradually crumbled. Aristocrats who lost their domains and status in interstate and intrastate conflicts fell from their privileged social positions, while those who proved themselves useful as soldiers, strategists, advisers, or administrators were promoted to higher positions. Economic development opened other channels of social mobility. Peasants who reclaimed land for themselves were not tied to the old feudal system. Wealth gathered by trade and production of marketable commodities provided merchants and craftsmen with social status. By the beginning of the Warring States period, this dramatic increase in social mobility had led to a reconstruction of society. Feudalism was dissolved and was replaced by an increasingly centralized government.

Despite these reforms, a huge gap still separated rich and poor, a fact that was visible in the large disparity in living conditions. The upper class lived in luxury, as shown by archaeological findings of fine bronze and jade artifacts in their well-built houses. The poor still lived lives not much better than those of their Neolithic ancestors, with dwellings that might be nothing more than a small earthen hut.

V

Intellectual and Cultural Pursuits

When the Zhou dynasty was founded, its leaders justified their victory over the Shang by attributing it to the Mandate of Heaven. Early Zhou documents frequently discussed the Mandate of Heaven, which was allegedly bestowed upon the Zhou people because their morals and ethics were superior to those of the Shang. The Zhou leaders repeatedly warned their subjects that the Mandate of Heaven could be taken away if they failed to meet the expected standards of behavior. Over time, the Mandate of Heaven became a yardstick that the Chinese used to determine whether political authority was legitimate. Governments that didn't live up to this standard were often considered by the people to have lost the Mandate of Heaven, and were frequently overthrown by reformers and rebels who became heroes for doing so.

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The Eastern Zhou period saw the rise of Confucianism. The teachings of Confucius (Kongfuzi, 551-479 bc), eventually became the principal school of thought in China. Confucius reinterpreted an existing code of aristocratic court behavior and applied it as a universal ethical code for all human beings. The central notion of Confucianism was ren (jen), which is translated variously as human nature, compassion, or love for all human beings. The teachings of Confucius were practical and ethical rather than religious. Although reverence for one's ancestors and the government's role as one of fatherly guidance were important in his ideas, the basic principle of Confucianism can be summarized simply as, “Do not do unto others what you do not like others doing unto you.”

Confucianism grew into a major school of thought during the Spring and Autumn period. There were, however, competing schools, such as Mozi's (470?-391 bc) emphasis on social justice, centralization of the government, and promotion on the basis of merit. In addition, Daoism (Taoism), which advocated self-cultivation and opposed the imposition of outside codes of conduct on the individual, flourished in this period.

Mencius (Mengzi, 371?-289 bc), a Confucian scholar, combined ren and Mozi's ideas about social justice into his concept that human nature is innately good. Another disciple of Confucius, Xunzi (Hsün-tzu, 298?-238 bc), broke from mainstream Confucianism by stating that human nature was inherently evil. He stressed education and culture as the only ways to reshape human character and to hold society together. Confucianism eventually became the most important element in Chinese thought.

Other schools of thought also flourished under the Eastern Zhou, including Legalism, which was based on Xunzi's ideas. This school developed a political philosophy that emphasized strict laws and punishments to control every aspect of society. Personal freedom was less important than a strong authoritarian state. The Legalists urged the socialization of capital, establishment of government monopolies, and other economic measures designed to increase the wealth of the state, strengthen its military power, and centralize administrative control. The concept of strong central authority was later embraced by the Qin dynasty in forming China's first unified government.

Scholars visiting courts of various states to advise rulers and ministers also founded an intellectual community that was instrumental in creating a common Chinese cultural heritage. This cultural community, together with the economic community of interregional trade, made China ready for political unification in 221 bc.

VI

Legacy of the Zhou

During the eight centuries of the Zhou dynasty, China was transformed from a feudal state to one with a well-organized central government. As the structure of the state evolved, a new Chinese civilization developed. Cultural homogeneity increased as regional cultures interacted and goods and services were exchanged among regions. Deliberations on the fundamental ethics that guide human conduct also contributed to the formation of a new civilization. Despite various changes, this civilization essentially survived in China for the next 2000 years.

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