Arabic Literature

I

Introduction

Arabic Literature, literature written in the Arabic language, from the 6th century to the present. This literature has its roots in seminomadic societies on the Arabian Peninsula. Its spread is linked to the rise of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. The influence of the Arabic language and Arabic culture eventually expanded with Islam throughout the Middle East, as far east as Afghanistan and as far west as Spain and northern Africa’s Atlantic coast. Arabic literature today crosses geographical and national boundaries and includes numerous genres.

Major historical events have played a pivotal role in the development of Arabic literature. The Arab-Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries created a vast multinational empire in which scholars and writers flourished. The literature created within this empire surpasses in scope and sophistication the literature of medieval Europe.

The influence of the West on Arabic literature and culture started at the end of the 18th century with France’s invasion of Egypt. The revival of Islam around the world in the late 20th century also has had an enormous effect on Arabic literature, both secular and religious. Writers today often draw upon early Arabic texts and conventions for inspiration, perpetuating the vibrant, self-aware tradition of Arabic literature.

II

Pre-Islamic Literature

Arabic literature began before Islam in a period called the jahiliyya. This literature of a partly Bedouin (nomadic) society was dominated by poetry, and the poet often acted as the oracle of his tribe. A major poetic form of this time was the qasida, or ode. It required the poet to sustain the same rhyme and meter throughout the entire poem, which ran anywhere from 25 to 100 lines. The poet was supposedly moved to compose his poem by the sight of animal droppings, which signaled an abandoned encampment. Ibn Qutayba, a famous critic and writer of the 9th century, tied the creation of the ode to the remnants of a camp. The poet could describe his loves, his camel, his adventures, all in an ode with a highly formal structure. The qasida remains a favored form in Arabic literature to this day.

---

---

Legend has it that the Mu’allaqāt (meaning “the suspended ones”), the seven greatest qasidas from the pre-Islamic period, were hung upside down from the Kaaba, a structure in Mecca that became the holiest site of Islam. The legendary male poets of this period include Imru al-Qays, Tarafa, and Labid.

It is not only the poetry of male poets that comes down to us, however. Al-Khansa', a prominent pre-Islamic poet, became famous for elegies for her dead brothers, Sakhr and Mu'awiya, both of whom met violent ends. The genre in which al-Khansa' wrote, the ritha' (poetic elegy), was often used by women, usually to mourn the death of a brother or a father.

III

Medieval Arabic Literature

Medieval Arabic literature encompasses a rich body of poetry and prose. These works include anecdotes, stories, philosophical essays, theological texts, biographies, literary criticism, and writings on geography and history as well as other subjects. This period begins with the rise of Islam and continues until the influence of the West becomes pronounced.

A

Qur'an and Hadith

The Qur'an (or Koran), the holy book of Islam, was revealed to the Arabian Prophet Muhammad, through the intervention of the angel Gabriel, during the 7th century. It heralded not only a new religious civilization but a sophisticated literary culture as well. The Qur'an is considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God, and as such is deemed perfect both from a literary and a religious point of view.

The Qur'anic chapters, or suras, are organized not in chronological order of revelation but in order of length, from the longest to the shortest, except for the opening sura. The chapters can be divided into Meccan or Medinan according to the city (Mecca or Medina) in which they were revealed. The Meccan chapters, shorter and punchier, are more often exhortations and calls to religion with appropriate reminders, for example, about the Day of Judgment. The Medinan chapters, on the other hand, tend to be devoted more to legal and ritual matters and are often directed to the conduct of affairs within the Muslim community.

The Qur'an was revealed in rhymed prose. Its power emanates not only from the incantatory rhythms of its language but also from its vivid imagery. Chapters such as the one relating the story of the biblical Joseph are memorable as well for the symmetry and beauty of the tales they tell. Joseph becomes an ideal of male beauty in Islam, and his fateful encounter with Pharaoh's wife was later transformed into a mystical allegory.

The life of the Prophet Muhammad also generated its own literary sources, primary among which is the hadith. The hadiths were a collection of the Prophet's sayings and actions, transmitted through a chain of authorities said to go back to Muhammad himself. The two most famous collections of hadiths are those of al-Bukhari and Muslim in the 9th century. These works provide a wealth of information covering all aspects of a Muslim's life, from prayer to personal, social, and business conduct.

The Arabic language and the art of using it effectively became codified during the medieval period. Arab grammarians and literary scholars devoted themselves to analysis of the language and writing of the Qur'an, which was considered inimitable (matchless), as well as the language of Arabic poetry. Medieval grammarians and philologists (scholars of language and literature) developed systems of grammar, linguistics, and poetic rhetoric (principles and rules of composition). Two of the scholars who made important contributions to this study were al-Jurjani in the 11th century and al-Sakkaki in the 12th century.