Theology

VIII

The Reformation

The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century marked a return to the Bible and a more practical, ethical, and less speculative tone in theology, and therefore an attempt to reduce the role of philosophy in theological work. German theologian Martin Luther, who initiated the Reformation, was not a systematic theologian, but the new teaching was ably presented by his colleague Melanchthon in his Loci Communes Rerum Theologicarum (1521). By far the greatest Reformation theologian was John Calvin, whose Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) remains the classic of Reformed systematic theology. Calvin stressed the sovereignty of God to the point of constructing a doctrine of strict predestination, but he tried to base all his teachings on the Bible.

IX

Modern Theology

After the Reformation, a period of theological stagnation set in as the Roman Catholic and Protestant orthodoxies faced one another in rigidly entrenched positions. In the 17th and 18th centuries, both camps were threatened by the rise of rationalist philosophy and empirical science. The long reign of theology as “queen of the sciences” was ending. In the face of these threats, 19th-century German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher brought new life to theology. The authority of orthodoxy was gone, and the old natural theology had been discredited by two 18th-century philosophers, English skeptic David Hume and German idealist Immanuel Kant. Thus, Schleiermacher boldly made his appeal to regarding the present experience of the believing community as the new basis for theology. In his major work, The Christian Faith (1821-1822), doctrine is treated as the transcript of experience. With Schleiermacher, the focus of theology seems to shift from God to humanity, and this was generally true of the liberal theology that dominated the 19th century. Its development was interrupted by the work of Karl Barth, whose monumental Church Dogmatics (1932-1962) represents a return to biblical theology. In the last half of the 20th century, a variety of theological schools coexisted. Notable among them were the revitalized Roman Catholic theology springing from the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965). Other schools employ the principles of 20th-century English philosopher Alfred North Whitehead, 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger, and even 19th-century German political philosopher Karl Marx for theological construction.

X

Theology and Other Disciplines

Theology's oldest partner in dialogue has been philosophy. Successive schools of philosophy have inspired innovative theological thinking, offered categories for elucidating theological ideas, and interpreted the changing interests of society.

Judeo-Christian theology in particular has been intimately involved with history, because in the biblical tradition, history is the medium of revelation, and the historical assertions of faith have to be scrutinized and tested like other historical assertions. Psychology, sociology, and anthropology all involve the study of religion, and although their methods and aims are different from those of theology, they often throw light on the course of theological development. Theology must also draw on the natural sciences—for instance, in investigating how the doctrines of creation and providence are related to the world described by science. Finally, since the late 20th century, theologians of the great world religions have entered into dialogue with one another, establishing a common ground and exploring differences.

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See also Religion.

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