India

Article Outline

Introduction; Land and Resources; The People of India; Arts; Economy; Government; History

Art and Architecture

Over many centuries, Indian architecture, sculpture, and painting developed many distinct styles based on religious, cultural, and regional influences. Some of the earliest examples of all three come out of Buddhism. For instance, Buddhist traditions gave rise to stupas, or burial mounds of earth and stone, constructed in the 3rd century bc. Images of the Buddha were carved in the 2nd century ad, and stories of the Buddha are depicted in paintings on temple walls carved in stone cliffs at Ajanta between the 2nd century bc and the 7th century ad.

After the 5th century ad Buddhism’s influence on art declined as that of Hinduism and Jainism rose. Hindu and Jain temples developed in many styles, most characterized by ornate carvings, pyramidal roofs and spires, and numerous sculptures of divinities housed within. Sculpture frequently portrayed Hindu and Jain gods in relief on temple walls, and became increasingly elaborate, linear, and decorative through the 13th century.

Muslim invaders from Central Asia and Persia brought new artistic styles and techniques, among them the dome, mosaic, and minaret. Many domed tombs and mosques from the 12th century and later have been preserved, as have some magnificent fortresses. Because Islam forbids carved images, sculpture took the form of gloriously elaborate geometric and floral designs adorning the temples. One of the most famous examples of Islamic architecture in India is the Taj Mahal in Āgra (started in 1632 and completed in 1648).

It is believed that most early painting has not survived because the materials, such as wood and cloth, that were used as surfaces were fragile. The paintings that did survive are of two types: wall paintings and miniature paintings. In addition to those found in about 30 caves at Ajanta, wall paintings dating from the 2nd to the 7th century ad have been found in cave temples in Tamil Nādu and Orissa. Most of these frescoes depict stories from the life of Buddha. The first surviving examples of miniature paintings are palm leaf manuscripts from the 11th century illustrating the life of Buddha. Secular-themed miniatures developed in the courts of Muslim sultans who controlled northern India after the 13th century. These illustrated manuscripts reached their height in the 16th through 18th centuries. They were heavily influenced by Persian art and often showed historical scenes and portraits.

Music and Dance

The basic structure of music and dance in India has been fundamentally indigenous, laid out in a 2nd century ad Sanskrit treatise on drama and music, the Natya Shastra. There are two classical traditions of music: the North Indian Hindustani style and the South Indian Carnatic (Karnatak) style. Although both styles of music were influenced by bhakti (devotional) traditions, the Hindustani style was also influenced in its instruments, styles, and schools of performance by Muslims invading from the north. Modern classical musicians of note include M. S. Subbalakshmi, a vocalist; Palghat Mani Iyer, a drum performer; Ravi Shankar, a sitar (stringed instrument) performer; Ali Akbar Khan, a sarod (plucked string instrument) performer; Bismillah Khan, a shehnai (reed instrument) performer; Amir Khan, who performs khyal (a north Indian vocal style); and the Dagar brothers, who perform dhrupad (another north Indian vocal style).

Dance is a highly developed art form in India and is important as a pastime, in worship, and as part of Sanskrit dramas. The major classical dance forms are bharata natyam, kathak, manipuri, and kathakali. Bharata natyam, which is based on the Natya Shastra, is probably the most significant of these forms. It incorporates many of the precise movements, hand gestures, and facial expressions for which Indian dance is famous. Each movement and gesture the dancer performs has its own meaning. The kathak dance style originated in north India and emphasizes rhythmic footwork (under the weight of more than 100 ankle bells) and spectacular spins. The manipuri dance form, which is named for Manipur, where it originated, is known for its graceful turning and swaying. The kathakali form is a dance drama, characterized by mime and facial makeup resembling masks.

Well-known dancers of the postindependence era include Balasaraswati, who performed the bharata natyam form of dance, and Pandit Birju Maharaj, who performed the kathak form. In India, European style has influenced only popular music and dance, not classical. See Indian Music; Indian Dance.

Theater and Film

India has had a distinguished theatrical tradition for more than a thousand years. The Gupta Dynasty (ad 320-550?) saw the flowering of Sanskrit drama. The great plays that survive from that time are generally secular, such as Shakuntala by Kalidasa, about the court, kings, and courtesans. Classical plays are rarely revived, although modern playwrights have experimented with traditional mythic and historical themes. Theater other than folk theater, which struggles despite government patronage to survive, is directly from the European tradition and is popular only in larger cities. Theater has been eclipsed by the cinema and more recently by television.

India produces more films annually than any other country. The audience, despite the spread of televisions and videocassette recorders, is still enormous. Popular films are generally written to a formula and are often embellished with songs and dance routines. Film themes vary from historical and religious to social: rich boy meets poor girl; twins separated at birth become policeman and criminal; boy sacrifices his love for a girl to patriotic duty or to the desires of parents, who wish him to marry another. Popular cinema rarely has realistic settings or plots, and imitations of Western films are common. Indian film is a significant cultural export to Central Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.

Even within the popular genre, there have been films with political and humanistic messages. Perhaps best known in this genre is Satyajit Ray, whose “Apu trilogy”—Pather Panchali (1955, Song of the Road), Aparajito (1957, The Unvanquished), and Apur Sansar (1959, The World of Apu)—established him as one of the world’s leading filmmakers. Recent alternative cinema, supported largely by government subsidies, has only gathered a small, elite audience. Television entertainment in India includes situation comedies (sitcoms), domestic melodramas, and occasionally multiepisode Hindu epics.

Libraries and Museums

India has more than 60,000 libraries, including more than 1,000 specialized ones attached to various government departments, universities, and institutions. The National Library in Kolkata receives all books and magazines published in India. The National Archives and the Nehru Memorial Library and Museum are located in New Delhi. The Delhi Public Library is considered one of the best in India.

India has hundreds of museums. Some of them contain important historical and archaeological collections, such as the Indian Museum in Kolkata, the Government Museum and National Art Gallery in Chennai, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalay (formerly called the Prince of Wales Museum) in Mumbai, and the National Museum of India in New Delhi. Rich collections of sculptures, miniature paintings, and other historical and archaeological treasures are housed in museums in Mathura and Vārānasi, and in several locations associated with archaeological sites. The Calico Museum of Textiles in Ahmadābād and the Crafts Museum in New Delhi have outstanding collections of Indian textiles. The Crafts Museum also houses a spectacular collection of folk art from all over the country. European art of the 19th century is a special feature of the Victoria Memorial Hall in Kolkata. The National Gallery of Modern Art is in New Delhi.

Economy

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Since gaining independence in 1947, India has struggled to modernize and diversify an economy that was left relatively undeveloped by economic policies under British colonial rule. In the 19th century India’s cottage industries and thriving trade were virtually destroyed due to imports of European (primarily British) manufactured goods, which the colonial government paid for with exports of agricultural products such as cotton, opium, and tea. Agricultural development was therefore encouraged, while the industrial sector was neglected. Beginning in the late 19th century there was some investment in the industrial sector and infrastructure (mainly railways and irrigation works). Nevertheless, India’s economy stagnated during the last three decades of British rule.

At independence India was desperately poor, with an aging textile industry as its only major industrial sector. Since then the country has been gradually transforming its economic base from agricultural to industrial and commercial. To fund development, however, India rapidly accumulated high levels of foreign debt. Policies of economic liberalization introduced in the late 1970s stimulated the industrial sector, leading to an acceleration of economic growth in the 1980s. In the 1990s the service sector emerged as the primary economic stimulus, reflecting a growing business economy in urban areas as well as a large government bureaucracy. Although the economic structure of the country began to change, with services contributing more to the economic bottom line than any other sector, agriculture remained the most important sector in terms of employment. Economic development was regionally uneven, with the prosperity of more developed states standing in sharp contrast to the extreme poverty of relatively undeveloped states.

In 2005 India’s annual gross domestic product (GDP) was $806 billion. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing made up 18 percent of the GDP, compared with 27 percent for industry (including manufacturing, mining, and construction) and 54 percent for services.

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Art and Architecture

Music and Dance

Theater and Film

Libraries and Museums

Economy