Egypt

B

Legislature

Egypt has a bicameral legislature, comprising the People’s Assembly and the Advisory Council. The People’s Assembly consists of 2 elected representatives from each of 222 geographical constituencies, along with 10 members appointed by the president, for a total of 454 members, all serving five-year terms. The Advisory Council, which serves only in a consultative role, consists of 176 popularly elected members and 88 presidential appointees, all of whom serve six-year terms.

C

Judiciary

Egypt’s highest court, the Supreme Constitutional Court, reviews the constitutionality of laws and regulations, resolves jurisdictional conflicts, settles disputes in cases where different lower courts have made conflicting judgments, and interprets the government’s laws and decrees. Below this court are courts of general jurisdiction and administrative courts.

Courts of general jurisdiction include the Court of Cassation, the courts of appeal, the tribunals of first instance, and the district tribunals. The Court of Cassation has final jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases. The courts of appeal have jurisdiction over one or more of Egypt’s governorates, or administrative divisions, and hear appeals of decisions made by lower courts. The tribunals of first instance are the courts that hear major criminal and civil cases. The district tribunals have jurisdiction over minor criminal and civil cases. The Public Prosecution, headed by an attorney general, serves at all levels of courts of general jurisdiction in all criminal and some civil cases. The administrative courts have jurisdiction over cases involving the government or any of its agencies and may investigate administrative crimes committed by officials or civil servants. Other judicial bodies include the Council of State, which settles administrative disputes and deals with disciplinary cases within the judicial system, and the Supreme Judicial Council, which ensures the judiciary’s independence from outside interference and helps regulate other judicial bodies.

Egypt’s legal system is closely patterned on that of France. A panel of judges, as opposed to a jury, reaches verdicts. Religious courts once operated, with separate systems for Muslims, Christians, and Jews, but they were abolished in 1956. Many Muslims argue that Islamic law, or the Sharia, should be the sole basis for all Egyptian legislation. A constitutional amendment adopted in 1980 recognizes the Sharia as a principal source of Egypt’s laws, but the legal system remains secular in character.

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D

Local Government

Egypt is divided into 26 governorates, each headed by a governor appointed by the president. Most of the governorates are subdivided into districts and subdistricts. There are local councils at each level, most of whose members are elected, but power over most political matters resides with the central government.

E

Political Parties

From 1923 to 1952 Egypt had a multiparty political system, but the king or his prime minister often limited the parties’ ability to compete freely for popular support or governmental power. From 1952 to 1978 Egypt’s government was effectively a military dictatorship, and the presidents used a succession of single parties to mobilize public opinion to support their policies. In 1978 a multiparty system was again instituted, but religious parties continued to be banned. The present political system tolerates greater diversity of opinion, but it is not yet fully democratic because the government controls the media and uses a vast system of political patronage to influence elections.

Since 1978 the National Democratic Party has been the dominant party. The government tolerates opposition parties that are not based on religion or on ideologies hostile to the state, but it often restricts their ability to propagate their policies and to run candidates for national or local elections. Legal opposition parties include the Ghad Party, the New Wafd Party, the National Progressive Unionist Party, the Liberal Socialist Party, the Socialist Labor Party, and the Nasserist Party. Despite the constitutional ban on religious parties, many Egyptians support the Muslim Brotherhood, the Islamic Group, or other technically illegal political movements that are not allowed to present candidates for legislative elections. The Muslim Brotherhood has had some success in electing supporters to the legislature by running them as independent candidates. Egypt held its first-ever multiparty presidential election in 2005. Previously, presidential contests were merely yes-or-no referendums on the nominated president.

F

Defense

Egypt’s armed forces in 2004 totaled 468,500, with 340,000 in the army, 30,000 in the air force, and 18,500 in the navy, and the remainder in the air defense or shared commands. Affiliated with the armed forces are the reserves, the Central Security Forces, and the National Guard. Each branch is headed by a commander, above whom stands the commander in chief of the armed forces. The president has ultimate authority over the military as its supreme commander. There is a three-year period of selective military service. The officer corps exercises great political influence.

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