Criminology

I

Introduction

Criminology, the scientific study of criminals and criminal behavior. Criminologists attempt to build theories that explain why crimes occur and test those theories by observing behavior. Criminological theories help shape society's response to crime both in terms of preventing criminal behavior and responding to it after it occurs.

II

Development of Criminology

The discipline of criminology has evolved in three phases, beginning in the 18th century. Although crime and criminals have been around for as long as societies have existed, the systematic study of these phenomena did not begin until the late 1700s. Prior to that time, most explanations of crime equated it with sin—the violation of a sacred obligation. When scholars first distinguished crime from sin, they made possible explanations of criminal behavior that were not theological (religious). This, in turn, allowed for the dispassionate, scientific study of why crime occurs. The development of this study is now known as the era of classical criminology.

The second phase, which began in the 19th century, is referred to as modern criminology. During this era, criminology distinguished itself as a subspecialty within the emerging disciplines of psychology, sociology, and economics. Scholars formed criminological societies and founded criminology journals. Criminologists conducted empirical tests (observations or experiments) of their theories, rather than relying solely on speculation, and consequently developed a wide range of theories.

The third phase, beginning in the second half of the 20th century, may best be called independent criminology. During this period, criminology began to assert its independence from the traditional disciplines that spawned it. In Western Europe, the United States, and Canada, criminologists expanded their professional associations and published an increasing number of journals. A number of universities developed graduate programs in criminology. Criminological theories have become more multidisciplinary (spanning various fields of study) because independent criminologists seek to understand crime itself rather than study crime as one aspect of an overall sociological or psychological theory.

---

---

A

Classical Criminology

The issues of crime and punishment have aroused interest and discussion since ancient times. Scriptures dating from the 10th century bc prohibit certain acts and provide consequences for those who disobey these rules. In the 5th century bc Greek historian Thucydides wrote about the usefulness of the death penalty. With the development of Christianity in the 1st century ad, questions of crime and punishment were almost always discussed in religious terms.

Christian thought tended to emphasize personal responsibility for wrongdoing; requiring penitence (remorse) by the criminal in exchange for salvation, or forgiveness, by God. Although punishment practices during the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) were often brutal, the church generally had a moderating influence. Christian philosophers expressed in their writings that the legitimate purpose of punishment was to reform and salvage the erring sinner.

It was not until the 18th century, however, that penal policy (and thereby the understanding of crime) was subject to systematic consideration. Authors began to condemn the frequent use of torture and the widespread imposition of capital punishment (the death penalty) and other brutal and degrading sanctions (penalties). In 1764 Italian jurist Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di Beccaria published Tratto dei delitti e delle pene (1764; translated as Essays on Crimes and Punishments, 1880). In this work, Beccaria criticized the use of torture and secret judicial proceedings and advocated abolition of the death penalty. He also argued that the certainty—rather than the severity—of punishment was a more effective deterrent to crime. Finally, Beccaria argued that penalties imposed for criminal offenses should be in proportion to the seriousness of the offense.

Around this same time, British philosopher Jeremy Bentham proposed the systematic codification (arrangement) of criminal law. Bentham urged lawmakers to base crimes and punishments on the principle of utility—that is, the greatest good for the greatest number. He attacked the excessive severity of punishments prescribed in the criminal law. Many of Bentham's ideas were introduced as legislation into the British Parliament, and his efforts laid the groundwork for substantial legal reform in the next generation. In part as a result of Bentham’s proposals, the number of crimes in England punishable by the death penalty was reduced from about 250 at the beginning of the 19th century to 4 by 1861.

The work of these 18th-century legal reformers did not produce an organized body of knowledge about why and when crime occurs. Rather, it served as the intellectual foundation for the field of criminology. Beccaria, Bentham, and those who followed them made crime and criminals a legitimate subject for scientific inquiry.

B

Modern Criminology

At the beginning of the 19th century, scholars began to apply the concepts and technologies of the rapidly developing biological and behavioral sciences to the study of crime. For the first time criminologists developed typologies of crime and criminals and attempted to identify patterns between these typologies and various biological, psychological, and social characteristics of offenders.

	More from Encarta
	•  Presidential Myths Quiz •  Coffee break: Recharge your brain