Protestantism

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The 19th Century

During the 19th century Protestantism became a worldwide movement as a result of intensive missionary activity (see Missionary Movements). It also became increasingly varied, as new sects and theological tendencies appeared. The most influential Protestant theologian of the century was the German Friedrich Schleiermacher. Schleiermacher understood religion as an intuitive feeling of dependence on the Infinite, or God, which he believed to be a universal experience of humanity. This emphasis on religious experience rather than dogma was taken up by the theological school of liberalism. Liberal theologians tried to reconcile religion with science and modern society, and they made use of the new historical and critical techniques of biblical criticism in an effort to distinguish the historical Jesus and his teachings from what they regarded as mythological and dogmatic embellishments.

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The Oxford Movement

Conservative trends were also present, notably the Oxford movement in the Church of England, which strongly affirmed the catholic and apostolic traditions of the church. Although some of its leaders, such as John Henry Newman, eventually entered the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglo-Catholics, as the adherents of the Oxford movement came to be called, continued to exercise an important influence in the Anglican Church, where they revived fasting and confessions and founded religious sisterhoods.

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Revivalism

Revivalism continued to be important throughout the Protestant world, especially in the United States, under the inspiration of such preachers as Dwight L. Moody. Many new revivalistic sects appeared, such as the Adventists and the Holiness churches.

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Social Concerns

Protestants played important roles in many humanitarian and reform movements during the century. In England evangelical Protestants were leaders of the agitation that led to the abolition by Parliament of slavery in British dominions. In the United States evangelical Protestants also actively campaigned against slavery (leading to schisms in some churches) and against intemperance, prostitution, and other social disorders. Responding to the problems of the Industrial Revolution, other movements, such as Christian Socialism and the Social Gospel, tried to employ Christian principles to bring about fundamental social changes.

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The 20th Century

The 20th century produced two reactions against theological liberalism. One was Fundamentalism, an American movement that was rooted in revivalism and insisted on the inerrancy of the Bible. The other was crisis theology, or neoorthodoxy, which developed in response to the suffering caused by World War I and which is particularly associated with Swiss theologian Karl Barth. Barth reaffirmed the sinfulness of humanity, the absolute transcendence of God, and the essential human dependence on God, doctrines that had been central to the Reformation. Unlike the Fundamentalists, however, Barth accepted the results of modern biblical scholarship.

After World War II, Evangelicalism, a more moderate outgrowth of Fundamentalism, became a major force in Protestantism. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Evangelicalism and Pentecostalism were among the fastest-growing movements in Protestantism. Among the most successful evangelicals in the United States was Billy Graham, who held rallies in packed stadiums urging people to accept Jesus and addressed his followers on radio and television. By the 1980s evangelicals and fundamentalists had become active in politics, working to shape the country’s agenda on such issues as education and abortion. Fundamentalist Jerry Falwell founded the Moral Majority, which helped elect U.S. President Ronald Reagan in 1980. Evangelist Pat Robertson formed the Christian Coalition, a grassroots network of evangelical Christians, and sought the U.S. presidential nomination in 1988. Believers in the inerrancy of the Bible sought to have schools teach alternatives to the theory of evolution. Many Protestants with a moderate or liberal stance also showed concern for social and political issues as they participated in antiwar movements and the American civil rights movement led by Baptist minister Martin Luther King, Jr.

Another important development was the ecumenical movement, which brought about the mergers of many Protestant denominations throughout the world and led to the formation in 1948 of the World Council of Churches. Protestants entered into dialogues with one another and with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches, as well as with non-Christian faiths. In one move toward greater unity, four Protestant denominations in the United States agreed in 1997 to recognize one another’s sacrament of communion and to exchange clergy under certain circumstances. The denominations were the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA), the United Church of Christ, the Presbyterian Church (USA) (see Presbyterianism), and the Reformed Church in America. Talks that began in 1969 between the ELCA and the Episcopal Church also resulted in the recognition of communion between the two denominations; the agreement took effect in 2001. In another step toward reconciliation the Lutheran World Federation (see Lutheranism) and the Roman Catholic Church healed their rift over the means to salvation in 1999. The two groups agreed that individuals could achieve salvation through God’s grace alone, although God grants them faith and the ability to do good works. (Lutherans had focused on faith, while Catholics emphasized good works.)