New Zealand

F

Social Services

New Zealand introduced a social security system of government-funded old-age pensions in 1898 and expanded the system in the 1920s. The central government took on the provision of social services in the late 1930s, after the global economic recession of the Great Depression. New Zealand developed into one of the world’s most comprehensive welfare states, with government subsidies for programs and services such as health care, welfare benefits, and education. In the mid-1980s, however, government began to reduce expenditures on social services. The reforms coincided with an economic restructuring program designed to decrease the role of government. The age of qualification for superannuation (the state-funded retirement benefit) was raised from 60 to 65, and the level of entitlement was cut. Measures were also instituted to reduce government expenditures on health care and education, but public outcry led to the reversal of some of these cutbacks. Although public hospitals provide state-subsidized health care, many are understaffed due to a nationwide shortage of health care providers. Increasing numbers of people have joined private health insurance schemes to circumvent waiting lists in public hospitals. Universities have found it difficult to function with decreased state funding, and students face escalating costs for tertiary education.

G

Defense

The army, navy, and air force of New Zealand are coordinated under the ministry of defense. The army numbered 4,450 regular personnel in 1999. Regular navy personnel totaled 1,980. The air force had 2,800 regular members. The army is primarily used in international peacekeeping operations. Military service is voluntary; compulsory service was eliminated in the 1950s.

H

International Organizations

New Zealand is a founding member of the United Nations (UN) and a full member of the Commonwealth of Nations, a voluntary association of countries and dependencies with ties to the United Kingdom.

VII

History

The first people to settle New Zealand were the ancestors of the Maori, who are thought to have called the islands Aotearoa (“Land of the Long White Cloud”). The Maori were part of the extraordinary spread of Polynesian peoples across the far-flung islands of the Pacific Ocean between 1,000 and 3,000 years ago. Although scholars have long debated the time of their arrival in New Zealand, the strongest evidence to date indicates that the first major Maori settlement was established about ad 1200.

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A

Early Maori Life

Maori history credits the explorer Kupe with the discovery of Aotearoa. Polynesian settlers subsequently came by canoe, or waka. The first Maori settlers found a country rich in easily hunted big game, notably fur seals and giant wingless birds known as moa. Seeking the highest concentrations of seal and moa, as well as sources of the best stone for tools, early Maori appear to have rapidly settled in many areas. Maori cultivated crops brought from central Polynesia, notably the kumara (sweet potato) and hue (gourd). They also fished and gathered wild plants, especially aruhe (fernroot).

By about 1500 the moa and fur seal populations had begun to decline, and the Maori shifted from hunting toward more intensive fishing, gardening, and gathering. It may have been about this time that modern tribal organization began to emerge. Groups began building great wooden forts, called pa, that dotted the country at the time of European contact. Intensive warfare, however, may have been less common than Maori legends and the large number of pa suggest. The Maori population is estimated to have been about 85,000 in 1769, when ongoing European contact began.

Maori culture before European contact was rich and dynamic. The Maori traveled widely and exchanged goods through reciprocal gifting. Mythology, religion, and rituals were well developed, and a vast body of lore transmitted history, identity, and practical knowledge. Singing, dancing, oratory, weaving, and woodcarving were important cultural traditions. Ritual cannibalism was sometimes practiced on the bodies of slain enemies, and prisoners of war were made slaves or low-status wives. Social status depended on mana (repute), which could be acquired through inheritance, such as high-ranking lineage, or individual achievement. Evidence for the status of Maori women, although inconclusive, indicates that mana was a key factor. Some women of esteemed mana ranked among the highest sacred chiefs, warriors, and other community leaders. Women also had important formal roles in social rituals. Both male and female children were cherished.

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