West Indies

Article Outline

Introduction; Political Structure; Land and Resources; Economy; People; History

Efforts Toward Cooperation

In 1958 the British established the Federation of the West Indies, to unite ten of its colonies into a single political group. Despite common cultural and political bonds, the federation failed. It was dissolved in 1962 before Britain granted independence, largely because of regional differences.

Smaller federations came into being, including Trinidad and Tobago as well as the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis, but attempts to politically unify groups of islands often met with resistance from less populous islands that feared domination by larger neighbors. Sporadic but unsuccessful attempts at political union continued, notably among the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean.

What developed in place of political union was cooperation in international trade and in the use of regional resources for the common good. In the late 1960s and early 1970s a number of nations formed regional associations to promote trade and economic cooperation.

The Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA) was established in 1968 by former and current British colonies to increase trade among its members and to establish a common policy on taxing imports from non-CARIFTA nations. The Caribbean Regional Development Bank, an international financial organization modeled on the World Bank, was established in 1969. It makes loans to encourage regional economic development.

Social Change and Nationalist Movements

In the 1940s movements demanding national autonomy emerged in many West Indian societies. Autonomy was seen as the only way to shift decision-making power in economic as well as political matters from the colonial power to the West Indian people. Demands for autonomy also had to do with race and color, which had been central issues in the Caribbean for nearly five centuries, ever since the beginning of the African slave trade in the early 1500s.

West Indian society inherited a social structure based on slavery, the plantation, and colonial rule. That structure had a small white elite at the top; a small middle class of white and a few black people; and a large black base occupying the lowest economic class. Most whites were well off, socially secure, and educated, while most blacks were poor, often semiliterate, and underprivileged.

Traces of the old social structure remained strongest in the French West Indies. In Martinique a small elite of local white families kept great economic power in their hands. There also the color divisions were obvious, with a white upper class, a middle class divided of many races, and a large mass of black Martinicans.

In Haiti, too, class divisions were based on race. Nearly two centuries after it achieved independence, Haiti’s society still had sharp racial, cultural, and linguistic divisions. One percent of the population—largely a mulatto elite—controlled 40 percent of Haiti’s wealth. The majority of Haitians were poor black agricultural workers. They were largely illiterate and spoke only Creole, a mixture of French and African languages. French was spoken by the wealthy upper classes.

National movements under leaders such as Luis Muñoz Marín in Puerto Rico, Alexander Bustamante and Norman Manley in Jamaica, Eric Williams in Trinidad, Grantley Adams in Barbados, and Fidel Castro in Cuba have modernized and transformed the islands. Puerto Rico’s status as a commonwealth rather than a colony, as well as its evolution from an agricultural to an industrial and service economy, was due in large part to the political efforts of Luis Muñoz Marín, the island’s first elected governor. In the British island colonies, leaders like Bustamante, Manley, Williams, and Adams led successful and peaceful independence movements, leading to full emancipation from British control.

In Cuba Fidel Castro led the successful revolution that brought the downfall of the dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959. Castro and his followers transformed Cuba by imposing a socialist system on the island nation. The government nationalized foreign properties, broke up immense plantations, and distributed land to peasant farmers. It also established long-term programs to improve basic health conditions and the educational system. However, the revolution also instituted a Communist political system that stifled any dissent and restricted freedom of expression.

The effect of nationalist movements was evident not only in the political and economic activity of the islands, but also in the spread of intellectual activity. During the social and political revolution that occurred in the English-speaking West Indies in the 1950s and 1960s, novelists, poets, sculptors, painters, choreographers, and musicians emerged. Among the more prominent were novelist V. S. Naipaul of Trinidad, musician Bob Marley of Jamaica, poet and playwright Derek Walcott of Saint Lucia, and writer Jamaica Kincaid of Antigua.

United States Influence

The United States has been a powerful presence in the economy of the West Indies since the mid-1800s, when it became a major trading partner in the region. Direct U.S. military and political influence in the region began in 1898 with the Spanish-American War. After the war, the United States occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico.

The military occupation of these islands established a pattern of intervention by the United States in the region’s political affairs. United States influence increased dramatically during the 20th century. The U.S. military intervened in the internal affairs of, invaded, and even occupied some islands—Cuba from 1898 to 1902, Puerto Rico from 1898 to 1917, the Dominican Republic from 1916 to 1922 and again in 1965, Haiti from 1915 to 1935, and Grenada in 1983.

Beginning in the mid-19th century, U.S. investment poured into the region, initially in sugarcane production but later in mining, petroleum extraction and refining, tourism, and other sectors. This influx of money brought prosperity to many islands, but not all residents shared in the benefits. Investors and politicians in the United States usually supported the ruling classes in the islands as a means of keeping West Indian society stable and ensuring the security of U.S. investments.

Many less affluent West Indians came to resent U.S. economic and political influence in their region. Resistance to U.S. influence provided the impetus for a number of left-wing political movements in the region, including the socialist revolution in Cuba in 1959, the socialist programs of Jamaican prime minister Michael Manley in the 1970s, and Grenada’s socialist government under Maurice Bishop in the early 1980s.

The U.S. economic presence increased in the late 20th century with an influx of U.S. tourists to the region and the growth of U.S. investments in the West Indies. However, interactions between the West Indies and North America encompass much more than politics and economics. Personal and cultural contacts have also expanded tremendously as improved transportation has made travel between the regions easier and economic necessity has encouraged many islanders to look elsewhere for their livelihoods.

For instance, West Indian immigration to the United States has grown dramatically since 1960. Millions of Cubans and Puerto Ricans and hundreds of thousands of Dominicans, Haitians, and Jamaicans now reside in the United States. Sun-seeking North American tourists have affected not only the economic landscape of many islands but also their cultural and social values.

Contemporary Issues

At the beginning of the 21st century, the West Indies faced a range of problems, from population pressure to environmental degradation. Deforestation, soil erosion, and the depletion of soil fertility are problems on many islands. Haiti was perhaps the most extreme example. Many of the region’s difficulties resulted from a lack of economic opportunities. The physical constraints imposed by geography limit development on many islands. They are too small and have too few resources to offer many opportunities.

Most island economies still depended on one major trading partner–either Britain, France, The Netherlands, or the United States. Interregional trade was not significant. Furthermore, many island economies were highly dependent on one or two exports for most of their foreign-exchange earnings, making them susceptible to fluctuations in world markets. Examples included petroleum in Trinidad, bauxite in Jamaica, and sugarcane in Cuba. Tourism offered some economic diversification, but it also depended on world economic conditions and required foreign investment.

As island populations grew, West Indians increasingly sought work elsewhere. At the beginning of the 20th century islanders immigrated to Central America to build railroads, work on banana plantations, and construct the Panama Canal. A century later, islanders still immigrated in large numbers, but often to major urban centers like Miami, New York, London, or Paris.

A number of political issues presented challenges to the region. While democratic institutions were well established on islands such as Jamaica, others were less stable. The political future of some of the region’s larger islands, such as Cuba and Puerto Rico, was far from clear. Increasing disparity in incomes and living standards between the wealthy and the poor on many islands, as well as racial discrimination and tension, provided ample fuel for social and economic conflict in many island societies.

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Efforts Toward Cooperation

Social Change and Nationalist Movements

United States Influence

Contemporary Issues