Birth Control

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Current Research in Birth Control

Researchers are currently developing a number of birth control options for men, including hormonal contraceptive pills and implants. An injection for men under investigation contains a hormone that appears to interfere with the production of sperm. Reversible methods of vasectomy are also being explored.

Drugs known as gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists are being investigated as birth control options for men and women. These drugs prevent the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, which, in turn, blocks ovulation in women and spermatogenesis (the development of sperm) in men.

Researchers are also developing improved versions of existing birth control options. New types of diaphragms may one day include a one-size-fits-all device and a disposable, spermicide-releasing diaphragm. Other research focuses on biodegradable hormonal implants designed to dissolve in the body and new spermicidal preparations that would better protect against STIs.

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History and Social Issues of Birth Control

A variety of birth control methods have been used throughout history and across cultures. In ancient Egypt women used dried crocodile dung and honey as vaginal suppositories to prevent pregnancy. One of the earliest mentions of contraceptive vaginal suppositories appears in the Ebers Medical Papyrus, a medical guide written between 1550 and 1500 bc. The guide suggests that a fiber tampon moistened with an herbal mixture of acacia, dates, colocynth, and honey would prevent pregnancy. The fermentation of this mixture can result in the production of lactic acid, which today is recognized as a spermicide.

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Before the introduction of the modern birth control pill, women ate or drank various substances to prevent pregnancy or induce miscarriage. The seeds of Queen Anne’s lace, pennyroyal, giant fennel, and many other concoctions of plants and herbs were used as oral contraceptives. However, such folk remedies can be dangerous or even fatal.

The concept of the IUD was developed by ancient Turks and Arabs who inserted smooth pebbles into the uterus of a camel to prevent it from getting pregnant during treks across the desert. The use of colorful penis coverings can be traced back to ancient Egypt, but it is likely that their function was more decorative than contraceptive. In the 16th century the Italian anatomist Gabriello Fallopio (for whom the fallopian tubes that carry the eggs from the ovary to the uterus were named) described linen sheaths to be used to protect against syphilis. In the 17th century a physician in the court of King Charles II of England created a condom made of sheep intestines. Italian adventurer Giacomo Casanova is said to have referred to the device as an “English riding coat.” It was not until after the vulcanization of rubber in 1839 that the condom was widely used as a birth control device.

German physician Wilhelm Mensinga invented the modern diaphragm in 1880. The cervical cap was invented in 1860, but it did not receive the approval of the Food and Drug Administration for use in the United States until the late 1980s, despite its widespread use in Europe.

Concerns about overpopulation have also existed since ancient times. The Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle warned of its dangers. In his essay De Anima, Roman philosopher Tertullian commented on the blessing of catastrophes that help curb overpopulation. In the 18th century British economist Thomas Malthus made overpopulation a topic of scholarly discussion. He was one of the first to apply statistics to the analysis of population growth. This approach became the science of demography.

Malthus was concerned about the human potential to produce offspring in far greater numbers than the Earth’s ability to provide subsistence. In his “Essay on the Principle of Population,” published in 1798, Malthus advocated what he termed “moral restraint” in the form of strict premarital chastity and delayed marriage to curb population growth. Malthus’s views were attacked by many as pessimistic, unsympathetic to the poor, and unrealistic in terms of his proposed solution. The birth control movement grew out of Malthus’s concerns, and his successors advocated more practical methods of contraception.

Margaret Sanger, an American nurse, pioneered the modern birth control movement in the United States. In 1912 she began publishing information about women’s reproductive concerns through magazine articles, pamphlets, and several books. In 1914 Sanger was charged with violation of the Comstock Law, federal legislation passed in 1873 prohibiting the mailing of obscene material, including information about birth control and contraceptive devices. In defiance of the Comstock Law and despite being jailed for these activities, Sanger continued to publish and disseminate information about birth control. In 1916 Sanger and her sister Ethel Byrne opened the first of several birth control clinics in Brooklyn, New York.

Congress revised the Comstock Law in 1936 to exclude birth control information and devices. Many states had laws prohibiting distribution or use of birth control devices but the constitutionality of these laws was increasingly questioned. In 1965, in Griswold v. Connecticut, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that married people have the right to practice birth control without government intervention. In 1972, in Eisenstadt v. Baird, the Court held that unmarried people have the same right.

Today there are more birth control options than ever before, but overpopulation and unwanted pregnancies remain worldwide problems. Having more children than one can support may lead to poverty, malnutrition, illness, and high mortality rates for infants, children, and women.

The problem of teenage pregnancy is considerably worse in the United States than in almost any other developed country. Among developed countries, the United States has one of the highest birth rates for women under 20. A detailed study comparing Canada, England and Wales, France, The Netherlands, Sweden, and the United States suggested that the problem of teen pregnancy in the United States may be related to less sex education in schools and lower availability of birth control services and supplies to adolescents. This study counters the view of some people in the United States who argue that sex education or making birth control devices such as condoms available to school-age children promotes sexual activity.

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