Will (philosophy and psychology)

Will (philosophy and psychology), capacity to choose among alternative courses of action and to act on the choice made, particularly when the action is directed toward a specific goal or is governed by definite ideals and principles of conduct. Willed behavior contrasts with behavior stemming from instinct, impulse, reflex, or habit, none of which involves conscious choice among alternatives. Willed behavior contrasts also with the vacillations manifested by alternating choices among conflicting alternatives.

Until the 20th century most philosophers conceived the will as a separate faculty with which every person is born. They differed, however, about the role of this faculty in the personality makeup. For one school of philosophers, most notably represented by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer, a universal will is the primary reality, and the individual's will forms part of it. In his view, the will dominates every other aspect of an individual's personality, knowledge, feelings, and direction in life. A contemporary form of Schopenhauer's theory is implicit in some forms of existentialism, such as the existentialist view expressed by the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, which regards personality as the product of actions, and actions as manifestations of the will to give meaning to the universe.

Most other philosophers have regarded the will as coequal or secondary to other aspects of personality. Plato believed that the psyche is divided into three parts: reason, will, and desire. For rationalist philosophers, such as Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, and René Descartes, the will is the agent of the rational soul in governing purely animal appetites and passions. Some empirical philosophers, such as David Hume, discount the importance of rational influences upon the will; they think of the will as ruled mainly by emotion. Evolutionary philosophers, such as Herbert Spencer, and pragmatist philosophers, such as John Dewey, conceive the will not as an innate faculty but as a product of experience evolving gradually as the mind and personality of the individual develop in social interaction.

Modern psychologists tend to accept the pragmatic theory of the will. They regard the will as an aspect or quality of behavior, rather than as a separate faculty. It is the whole person who wills. This act of willing is manifested by (1) the fixing of attention on relatively distant goals and relatively abstract standards and principles of conduct; (2) the weighing of alternative courses of action and the taking of deliberate action that seems best calculated to serve specific goals and principles; (3) the inhibition of impulses and habits that might distract attention from, or otherwise conflict with, a goal or principle; and (4) perseverance against obstacles and frustrations in pursuit of goals or adherence to principles.

Among the common deficiencies that may lead to infirmity of will are absence of goals worth striving for or of ideals and standards of conduct worth respecting; vacillating attention; incapacity to resist impulses or to break habits; and inability to decide among alternatives or to stick to a decision, once made.

See also Free Will.