U.S.-Iraq War

A

Southern Front

The initial goal of the U.S. Army ground force was to secure a bridge west of An Nāşirīyah, in southern Iraq. After that, the Army planned to conduct a feint east of the Euphrates River to give the Iraqis the impression that the Army planned to advance up Iraqi highways 1 and 8, the major routes leading to Baghdād. The main Army force, in fact, would stay well west of highways 1 and 8 and would advance toward the capital through the Karbalā’ Gap, a narrow area west of the central Iraqi city of Karbalā’. U.S. Army forces involved in this phase of the invasion included the 3rd Infantry Division, the 101st Airborne Division, and the 11th Attack Helicopter Regiment. A portion of the 82nd Airborne was initially held back as a reserve but later committed to the Army attack.

Meanwhile, the U.S. Marines and British forces carried out a supporting attack to the east, in which they established control over the Ar Rumaylah oil field. The British took control of the port of Umm Qaşr and eventually the southern city of Al Başrah. The Marines were then to advance past An Nāşirīyah on several courses before moving on Baghdād.

A

1

Expectations and Reality

Allied military strategy in Iraq was based on several expectations. All along, the intent of coalition commanders had been to bypass most of the major cities in the south and focus on taking Baghdād, the seat of Hussein’s power, where the regime appeared determined to make a final stand. Six of Hussein’s elite Republican Guard divisions guarded the approaches to the city, while a division of the Special Republican Guards, among other security forces, protected its interior. Military planners expected that advancing forces would be met by grateful, cheering Iraqis, especially among the Shia Muslims of the south, who had been long oppressed by the Hussein regime. In addition, coalition commanders also believed that Iraq would use chemical or biological weapons as U.S. troops closed in on Baghdād. For this reason, U.S. soldiers had received vaccinations against smallpox and anthrax before the war and donned protective suits as they advanced.

None of these expectations proved accurate. The Hussein regime sought to block the coalition advance by ordering paramilitary-style attacks using fighters based in An Nāşirīyah, An Najaf, and other southern towns. These irregular troops, in fact, played a more important role in Iraq’s strategy than did the Republican Guard. The paramilitary’s presence in the south, combined with the memory of the U.S. failure to support the 1991 Shia rebellion, discouraged the population there from welcoming coalition forces and rising up against Hussein. In addition, Iraqi forces never used chemical or biological weapons during the fighting, and none were found in the months following the war.

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A

2

Change in Tactics

The unexpected Iraqi strategy led to a change of tactics on the coalition side. The coalition decided that it needed to defeat the paramilitary forces in and around the southern cities before taking Baghdād. This delayed for several days the push toward Baghdād, but military officials said the step was necessary to protect the coalition’s lengthening supply lines.

By and large, the coalition forces proved adept at urban warfare in the southern cities. But they faced setbacks and confusion. For example, an Army maintenance unit lost its way and blundered into an enemy-controlled area of An Nāşirīyah on March 23. After a firefight, 11 U.S. soldiers were killed. On March 29 a suicide bomber in the outskirts of An Najaf killed four U.S. soldiers. On March 31, near Karbalā’, American soldiers fired on a van after it failed to slow down at a checkpoint, killing ten civilians, five of them children.

B

Northern Front

Coalition forces were unable to invade northern Iraq from Turkey, but stabilizing the north was critical to the war’s success. Kurdish forces, whose leaders pledged their support for the U.S. invasion, controlled much of the north.

On March 26 more than 1,000 American soldiers from the Army’s 173rd Airborne Brigade parachuted into northern Iraq. They quickly secured an airfield about 300 km (about 200 mi) north of Baghdād. Controlling the airfield allowed the United States to use air transport to deploy tanks and other fighting vehicles in the area. The main aim was to stabilize the region and discourage ethnic violence and Turkish intervention. But the forces were also able to open a second, northern front.

Encountering very little resistance, Kurdish fighters and a small number of U.S. Special Operations forces took control of the northern city of Kirkūk on April 10. Iraqi army units retreated in the face of the coalition advance after confronting an uprising among the city’s Kurds. Kurdish and U.S. forces continued to advance rapidly, taking Mosul, the largest city of the north, on April 11. In the absence of local government or police forces, Mosul descended into chaos, with rampant looting and violence.

C

Fall of Baghdād

In early April the U.S. force, its supply lines secured, moved in on Baghdād. On April 4 Army forces seized Saddam International Airport, west of the city, and renamed it Baghdād International Airport. On April 5 a battalion from the 2nd Brigade of the 3rd Infantry Division drove through Baghdād in a raid. More than 1,000 Iraqis were reported killed during the operation, according to a U.S. estimate. On April 7 the 2nd Brigade attacked into central Baghdād. The same day, U.S. B-1 bombers dropped four 900-kg (2,000-lb) bombs on a building in western Baghdād where Hussein was believed to be hiding. Local residents later reported that neither Hussein nor his family were present at the time of the attack, which leveled the building and reportedly killed 14 civilians.

Nevertheless, Hussein’s grip on power was gone. U.S. Marines arrived in Baghdād on April 9 and helped Iraqi civilians tear down a massive statue of Saddam Hussein that towered over a major city square. Within a few days Marines captured Tikrīt, a city north of Baghdād and Hussein’s ancestral home, with little struggle.

With the fall of government control came widespread looting in many cities, particularly Baghdād. Overstretched U.S. forces were unable to stop the looting, undermining two key aspects of U.S. strategy. First, while most Iraqis were glad to see Hussein deposed, the disorder and lack of services undermined popular support for U.S. intervention. In addition, the United States had limited its air strikes to avoid extensive damage to Iraq’s electrical system and other infrastructures that would be needed for Iraq’s recovery. But in the increasing chaos, many important infrastructures and related government offices were looted or destroyed. Iraqi saboteurs, presumably loyalists of Hussein’s Baath Party, also attacked power plants, oil pipelines, and bridges. After the war, a document from the Iraqi Intelligence Service, dated January 23, was found in Al Başrah. It called for a guerrilla campaign of economic sabotage—against power plants, communication lines, water purification plants, and many more targets—in the event the regime was toppled. Coalition forces were also the targets of suicide bombings, sniper fire, and other acts of hostility.

With great fanfare President Bush declared an end to combat operations on May 1. He was flown to an aircraft carrier stationed off San Diego, California, and arrived wearing a flight suit. Standing under a banner that read “Mission Accomplished,” President Bush declared that “an ally of al-Qaeda” had been defeated.

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