Native Americans of Middle and South America

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5

Toltec Empire

In central Mexico, meanwhile, the Toltec people established the next major civilization after the fall of Teotihuacán. A Nahuatl-speaking people, the Toltec migrated from the north and established their capital of Tula (Tollán) in the central plateau, about 64 km (40 mi) north of present-day Mexico City. Tula achieved a population of about 60,000 during the peak of the Toltec civilization, from about 900 to 1200. The Toltec assembled an empire with trading routes that extended north of the present-day border of Mexico and south into Maya territory. This trade network spread Toltec influence over a much greater area than that under direct Toltec rule. The Toltec Empire was not as expansive or culturally pervasive as Teotihuacán, and it flourished for a relatively brief period. However, it achieved a sustained period of peaceful rule. Successor states, including the great Aztec Empire, considered it to be the primary source of high culture and political legitimacy in the region. Even centuries later, leaders of politically ambitious ethnic groups sought to intermarry with descendents of the noble lineage from imperial Tula.

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6

Aztec Empire

For two centuries after the decline of the Toltec Empire, no single group achieved domination over a substantial area of central Mexico. A series of competing and warring mini-empires briefly held sway over small areas. Many nomadic groups migrated from the desert in the north into the more developed and temperate central plateau, and then acculturated to a more settled way of life based on agriculture. Most were speakers of Nahuatl, and this became the dominant language in central Mexico. The Mexica were among the last of the nomadic groups (known collectively as Chichimec by the sedentary societies in central Mexico) to migrate to the Valley of Mexico, arriving there in the 13th century. In about 1325 the Mexica began to construct their capital, Tenochtitlán, on one of the islands of Lake Texcoco, which was one of five interconnected lakes in the valley basin. They fought as mercenary warriors for other cultural groups in the valley for some time after their arrival, and they were subordinated to a small empire assembled by the Tepaneca. In 1428 the Mexica joined with the peoples of two other subjected city-states, Texcoco and Tlacopan, in revolt against the Tepaneca. After a successful insurrection, the triple alliance went on to establish the Aztec Empire. Tenochtitlán became the imperial capital.

Aztec armies conquered the entire region of central Mexico in less than a century of expansion, and the Aztec Empire became larger than any of the preceding empires in Middle America. The empire demanded labor service and tribute payments from its subjects. The subjugated peoples remained culturally distinct within the empire, however. They continued to be governed by their own royal families and worshiped their distinctive gods. Their frequent rebellions were violently suppressed by the Aztec armies. These internal wars provided Tenochtitlán with captives to offer as sacrifices to the Aztec gods. The Aztec Empire practiced far more human sacrifice than any other society in the Americas, making it central to religious ritual. In the other aspects of its culture the Aztec Empire largely resembled the preceding civilizations of Middle America. Little technological progress had occurred since Teotihuacán. None of the peoples of the Americas, for example, had developed industrial metallurgy, although they refined gold, silver, and some copper. Their tools and weapons still depended on sharpening and shaping obsidian (volcanic glass) and basalt (volcanic rock). Their extensive agricultural engineering, however impressive, largely replicated models and techniques that were centuries old. These factors placed restraints on the empire’s productivity and development.

E

Civilizations in South America

In South America the indigenous peoples of the Andean region also had a long history of advanced civilizations. The immense Andean mountain chain rises in western Venezuela and extends down the west coast through present-day Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, and Chile to the southern tip of the continent. The mountains rise near the coast and extend inland hundreds of miles in many places, forming a distinctive high plateau region, or Altiplano, in western Bolivia and southwestern Peru. The peoples of the Andean region established communities at many different elevations, from the coastal lowlands and inland river valleys well into the higher reaches of the mountains. The Andes became the most densely populated mountain chain in the world. The overall population was smaller than that of Middle America, however, and the rugged terrain led to a more dispersed pattern of settlement.

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The Andean cultures had a greater variety of crops and animals than did the peoples of Middle America. They cultivated root vegetables in the colder climate of the highlands and raised camelids—llamas, alpacas, and vicuñas—to provide wool, meat, and pack animals. They engineered innovative systems for agriculture, such as underground irrigation canals and mountainside terraces, in response to the challenges posed by extreme variations in climate and terrain. They also developed superior food storage and distribution techniques. They warehoused processed foods, such as freeze-dried potatoes, and other products to guard against future shortages and to supply military campaigns. Although they never created calendric, writing, or mathematical systems that rivaled those of Middle America, they did invent weaving and metallurgy earlier and developed them to a more advanced stage.

The Andean cultures did not construct urban complexes, temples, and pyramids on such a massive scale as those that characterized the civilizations in Middle America. Their urban centers were fewer and smaller. Their ritual centers also were generally smaller and less elaborate. They developed extensive trading networks like those found in Middle America, but they had fewer marketing centers.

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1

Regional Andean Empires

In about ad 400 two important city-states emerged in the Andean highlands. The Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) culture was centered at Lake Titicaca, straddling the present-day border between Peru and Bolivia. The Huari (Wari) culture was centered at Ayacucho, in south central Peru. Lake Titicaca, situated at an elevation of about 3,810 m (12,500 ft) in the Altiplano, was the site of many early cultures. In the 5th century Tiwanaku began to expand its influence, promoting increased agricultural production and trade throughout the Altiplano. Meanwhile, the influence of the Huari culture expanded from Ayacucho throughout much of the highlands and westward to the coast. Both cultures eventually assembled regional empires. They developed their regions considerably through colonization of underpopulated areas, agricultural engineering, and the construction of roads, bridges, and storehouses. This became a characteristic pattern of development in the Andean zone, and one that the Incas later used to their advantage in establishing their vast empire.

The Chimú civilization was the largest to develop in the coastal lowlands. The capital city of Chan Chan was located in the Moche River Valley, the site of the earlier Moche (Mochica) culture, in present-day Peru. The Chimú constructed an extensive irrigation system in Chan Chan, and thousands of artisans worked in the city. Chan Chan encompassed an area of 20 sq km (7.7 sq mi) and had at least 25,000 inhabitants. Extending their influence from Chan Chan, the Chimú began to assemble an empire in the 12th century and eventually dominated other river-valley societies over a 1,000-km (625-mi) expanse of coastland. This empire was intact when it was conquered by the Incas in the 15th century.

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2

Inca Empire

The Incas were a highland people with Cuzco, in present-day south central Peru, as their capital. In 1438 they were attacked by a neighboring group, the Chanca. After a successful defense, they undertook their own offensive and quickly dominated nearby provinces. During the next 90 years they subjugated virtually all of the peoples in the Andean region from southern Colombia into northern Chile. The population of Cuzco increased to about 100,000. The Inca Empire controlled the entire sedentary agricultural zone. Further expansion of the empire would have been difficult and would have yielded little of value.

The Inca Empire, called Tawantinsuyu (Land of the Four Quarters) by the Incas, was the first Andean civilization to extend over virtually the entire region, encompassing both the coastal lowlands and the mountain highlands. The Incas demanded only labor service, not tribute, from the peoples they conquered. The Incas generally did not replace the traditional ethnic rulers of the provinces that surrendered. The peace they imposed promoted agricultural development, greater productivity, and economic integration. They even founded entire new cities as administrative centers and as warehouse complexes to supply adjacent areas in times of shortage. Few revolts were attempted against Inca rule, unlike the many insurrections within the Aztec Empire.