Native Americans of Middle and South America

Article Outline

Introduction; Culture Areas; History; Native Americans Today

Social and Political Organization

Because its land was unsuitable for agriculture and food was scarce, the Southern South America culture area could not support large populations. Thus, all of the indigenous people here were organized as nomadic bands. In the north, band sizes ranged from 100 to 120 individuals for the Puelche to as many as 500 people for the Tehuelche. In contrast, band sizes farther to the south and along the east side of the continent were much smaller. The typical band consisted of a nuclear or extended family with no more than 10 to 15 people.

Warfare

Nearly all of the indigenous groups of Southern South America engaged in raiding or warfare, usually over territory and access to hunting grounds. The Charrúa, for example, conducted surprise raids against their enemies, and would hide their women and children in a nearby forested area before launching the attack. Women and children in the enemy band were spared and sometimes incorporated into their band, but men were killed, their heads skinned, and the skulls kept as trophies to be used as ceremonial drinking cups. Both the Puelche and the Tehuelche continually fought with neighboring bands and, later, with newly arrived European settlers. Although these two peoples used bows and arrows as well as spear throwers and slings, their most deadly weapon was the bola, which could be used either to kill the enemy or to quickly bring down a horse and its European rider.

The Ona were famous for their warfare. Numbering some 4,000 people throughout Tierra del Fuego Island, they divided into 38 territorial units, each with its own name, whose boundaries were defended against any incursions by neighboring groups. Shamans, called xon, were believed to have the magical power to change themselves into guanacos, allowing them to gather intelligence on the enemy covertly. The shamans would advise local men where the enemy was, what its numbers were, and whether a raid was likely to be successful.

Settlement and Housing

Because people lived in temporary settlements, dwellings in this culture area were simple pole-frame structures that could be easily erected and disassembled. The Charrúa constructed square huts consisting of a wooden pole set in each corner and covered with straw matting. All of the other groups placed sewn hides on a framework of wooden poles. The Tehuelche further weatherproofed their dwellings by smearing a mixture of red paint and grease over the exterior of the guanaco hides that formed the walls and roof. In the far south, where temperatures were cold all year, people usually kept a hearth fire going continuously in the center of the hut. Fur hides were placed around the hearth, and the entire family slept in a circle around it at night to keep warm.

Transportation

Although the Charrúa frequently used canoes for fishing, the Puelche, Tehuelche, and Ona did not use canoes at all, and the material items necessary for daily life were carried on their backs. Once the horse was introduced to the pampas in the 16th century by European settlers, both the Puelche and Tehuelche adopted a way of life centered around the horse. As with peoples of the Great Plains in North America, the horse aided them in hunting, extending their territories, and in carrying out attacks against both other indigenous groups and European settlers.

Living along damp, rugged coasts and offshore islands, the Chono, Alacaluf, and Yahgan were all primarily canoe people. Although Yahgan men were in charge of building beech bark canoes, the women owned them. During the hunt for sea mammals, a woman would guide the canoe while a man stood in the prow with his weapons to kill whatever prey they found. On colder days, the boaters kept warm by starting a fire in the bottom of the canoe on a bed of sand and rocks. Although these canoes looked very fragile to European observers, the Yahgan were such expert seafarers that they were able to travel 50 km (30 mi) across the open ocean to the Ildefonso Islands, which lie to the south of Tierra del Fuego.

Clothing and Ornamentation